FARM  POULTRY 

BY 

GEORGE  C.  WATSON 


ie  Rural  Science  i 
Lli  Bailey 


mural  &timtt 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


FARM    POULTRY 


l&urai  Science  Series 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.   BAILEY 

THE  SOIL.     King. 

THE  SPRAYING  OF  PLANTS.     Lodeman. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS.    Wing.   Enlarged  and  Revised. 

THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  LAND.     Roberts. 

THE     PRINCIPLES    OF     FRUIT-GROWING.     Bailey.     20th 

Edition,  Revised. 
BUSH-FRUITS.     Card. 
FERTILIZERS.     Voorhees.     Revised. 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE.  Bailey.     Revised. 
IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE.     King. 
THE  FARMSTEAD.     Roberts. 
RURAL  WEALTH  AND  WELFARE.     Fairchild. 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  VEGETABLE-GARDENING.    Bailey. 
FARM  POULTRY.    Watson      Enlarged  and  Revised. 
THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS.     Jordan. 
THE  FARMER'S  BUSINESS  HANDBOOK.     Roberts.' 
THE  DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS.     Mayo. 
THE  HORSE.     Roberts. 
How  TO  CHOOSE  A  FARM.     Hunt. 
FORAGE  CROPS.     Voorhees. 

BACTERIA  IN  RELATION  TO  COUNTRY  LIFE.     Lipman. 
THE  NURSERY-BOOK.     Bailey. 
PLANT-BREEDING.     Bailey  and  Gilbert.     Revised. 
THE  FORCING-BOOK.     Bailey. 
THE  PRUNING-BOOK.     Bailey. 

FRUIT-GROWING  IN  ARID  REGIONS.  Paddock  and  Whipple. 
RURAL  HYGIENE.     Ogden. 
DRY-FARMING.     Widtsoe. 
LAW  FOR  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER.     Green. 
FARM  BOYS  AND  GIRLS.     McKeever. 
THE  TRAINING  AND  BREAKING  OF  HORSES.     Harper. 
SHEEP-FARMING  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.     Craig. 
COOPERATION  IN  AGRICULTURE.     Powell. 
THE  FARM  WOODLOT.     Cheyney  and  Wentling. 
HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS.     Herrick. 
CITRUS  FRUITS.     Coit. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  RURAL  CREDITS.     Morman. 
BEEKEEPING.     Phillips. 
SUBTROPICAL  VEGETABLE-GARDENING.     Rolfs. 


FARM  POULTRY 


A   POPULAR   SKETCH  OF  DOMESTIC  FOWLS 
FOR    THE   FARMER   AND   AMATEUR 


BY 

GEORGE    C.    WATSON,    M.S 


FOURTEENTH   EDITION 


Sotk 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON  =   MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 
1917 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1901,  1912 
By  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  June,  1901 

Reprinted  February,  1903;  February,  1904;  July,  1905; 

November,  1906;  October,  1907;  January,  1909; 

July,  1909;  October,  1910 

New  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged,  September,  1912 
August,  1913;  August,  December,  1914;  May,  1917 


Plrnsant  Press 

J,  Horace  McFarland  Company 
Harrisburg,  Pa. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

POULTRY-RAISING  AS  A  BUSINESS 1-12 

Extent  of  business 2 

Capital  and  land  required 3 

Business  suitable  for  many  persons 9 

A  variety  of  products 10 

Products  easy  to  market 11 

CHAPTER  II 

EGG  BREEDS  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  HEN 13-40 

Classification  as  to  utility 13 

General  characteristics  of  egg  breeds 16 

Leghorn 25 

Minorca 33 

Andalusian 35 

Spanish 36 

Hamburg 37 

Red  Cap 40 

CHAPTER  III 

MEAT  BREEDS 41-56 

General  characteristics 42 

Brahma 47 

Cochin 51 

Langshan 53 

Faverolle 54 

(v) 


380119 


vi  Contents 

CHAPTER  IV 

PAGE 

GENERAL-PURPOSE  FOWLS 57-80 

General  characteristics 59 

Plymouth  Rocks. 62 

Wyandotte 68 

Orpington 70 

Java 72 

Dominique 73 

Dorking , : 74 

Houdan . .  ? 76 

Cornish  Game 77 

Rhode  Island  Red 79 

CHAPTER  V 

FANCY  BREEDS 81-87 

Polish 82 

Game 84 

Silky 84 

-    Sultan ; 85 

Frizzle ' 85 

Bantam 86 

CHAPTER  VI 

BUILDINGS  FOR  FOWLS:    LOCATION,  PLANS  AND  CONSTRUC- 
TION  88-122 

Selection  of  suitable  location  as  to  markets 88 

Location  of  buildings 89 

Convenience 92 

Construction  of  houses 96 

Size  of  buildings .  100 


Contents  vii 

CHAPTER  VII 

PAGE 

BUILDINGS:  INTERNAL  ARRANGEMENTS  AND  YARDS 123-142 

Construction  of  perches 123 

Nests 126 

Drinking-fountains 130 

Dust-boxes 133 

Yards  and  parks 135 

Orchards  as  ranges 140 

CHAPTER  VIII 

IMPROVEMENT  AND  BREEDING  OF  FOWLS 143-170 

Selection 143 

Selecting  eggs 145 

Breeding 152 

Heredity 152 

Variation 154 

In-and-in-breeding 157 

Cross-breeding 160 

Pure-bred  stock 163 

Improvement  of  common  fowls 165 

Breed  for  utility 168 

CHAPTER  IX 

FEEDING  FOR  EGGS  AND  FOR  MEAT 171-201 

Exercise 172 

Quality  of  food 172 

Forced  feeding  for  eggs 174 

Grain  food 175 

Green  food 179 

Meat  food, 182 

Lime..,  .   185 


viii  Contents 

PAGE 

Salt 186 

Grain  rations 193 

Feeding  for  meat  or  fattening 195 

Care  of  fattening  fowls 197 

Cramming 198 

CHAPTER  X 

INCUBATORS  AND  BROODERS 202-223 

Incubators  in  general 203 

Artificial  incubation 204 

Selection  of  an  incubator 207 

Care  of  incubators 212 

Brooders  and  brooder  houses 215 

Home-made  brooders 221 

CHAPTER  XI 

FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  LITTLE  CHICKENS 224-239 

Food 225 

Rations 226 

Exercise 230 

Feeding-troughs  and  -hoppers 232 

Grit 233 

Drinking-fountains 234 

Brooders 236 

Brooder  conditions 238 

CHAPTER  XII 

CAPONS  AND  BROILERS 240-255 

Capon  rearing 240 

Caponizing 249 

Preparing  capons  for  market 250 

Broilers..                                                                                     .  251 


Contents  ix 

CHAPTER  XIII 

PAGE 

DUCKS  AND  GEESE 256-279 

Ducks:  General  discussion 256 

Pekin 259 

Aylesbury 260 

Rouen 261 

Black  Cayuga 263 

Ducks:  Food  and  care 264 

Geese:  General  discussion 269 

Toulouse 271 

Embden 272 

African 273 

Chinese 274 

Canadian  or  wild 275 

Geese:  Food  and  care 276 

Pate  de  foie  gras 277 

CHAPTER  XIV 

TURKEYS,  GUINEAS,  PEA-FOWLS,  PIGEONS 280-301 

Turkeys:  General  discussion 280 

Bronze 286 

Narragansett 287 

White  Holland 287 

Buff 288 

Slate .  .^ 288 

Black " 288 

Bourbon  Red 289 

Turkeys:  General  care 289 

Breeding  stock 290 

Care  and  food  for  young 292 

Guineas..  .   294 


Contents 

PAGE 

Pea-fowls 297 

Pigeons 298 

Squabs 300 


CHAPTER  XV 

PREPARING  AND  MARKETING  POULTRY  PRODUCTS 302-329 

Dressing  poultry 303 

Packing  and  shipping 309 

Shipping  live  poultry 317 

Eggs:  Care  and  handling 318 

Preserving  eggs 324 

Water-glass 326 

Lime-water 329 

CHAPTER  XVI 

DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES 330-353 

Lice 330 

Mites 334 

Gapes / 335 

Roup 338 

Cholera 342 

White  Diarrhea . : 345 

Other  diseases 347 

Vices 34S 

Enemies • 352 

APPENDIX 

IMPORTANT  POULTRY  PUBLICATIONS.  . ,  355-361 


FARM   POULTRY 


CHAPTER   I 

POULTRY- RAISING   AS  A   BUSINESS 

THE  importance  of  the  .poultry  industry,  not  only 
in  this  country  but  in  all  countries,  is  now  generally 
recognized.  Particularly  is  this  apparent  to  those 
who  have  made  the  subject  a  study.  It  is  not 
necessary,  therefore,  in  this  book,  to  enter  into  an 
extended  discussion  of  the  present  or  possible  use- 
fulness of  domesticated  fowls.  It  may  be  of  interest, 
however,  to  note  some  of  the  difficulties  that  hinder, 
if  they  do  not  entirely  prevent,  the  compilation  of 
accurate  statistics  of  the  value  of  the  poultry  and 
poultry  products  of  the  United  States. 

When  one  attempts  to  compare  poultry-raising 
with  other  agricultural  industries,  he  is  confronted 
with  more  or  less  inaccurate  data.  Many,  at  first 
thought,  place  the  value  of  this  industry  far  below 
its  true  worth,  and  it  will  require  but  a  moment's 
reflection  to  understand  why  this  is  so.  Both  the 
rural  and  suburban  population  look  to  the  domestic 
fowls  for  a  little  help  each  day  in  providing  the 
table  with  wholesome  and  palatable  food.  So  gen- 

A  (1) 


*&??  Farm  Poultry 

eral  is  the  consumption  of  fowls  and  of  poultry 
products  that  some  of  these  products  are  found 
among  the  constituents  of  almost  every  well-pre- 
pared meal.  As  a  large  proportion  of  the  poultry 
products  go  directly  to  supply  the  daily  wants  of 
the  producers'  families,  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain 
with  any  degree  of  accuracy  the  quantity  thus 
consumed.  Very  few  records  are  kept  by  producers 
of  either  the  fowls  or  eggs  thus  consumed,  and 
whenever  statements  are  made  for  the  census- 
taker  or  others,  the  aggregate  is  much  more  likely 
to  be  underestimated  than  exaggerated.  Conse- 
quently, published  data  are  likely  to  be  more  or 
less  misleading,  and  to  give  far  too  low  value  to 
the  industry. 

The  United  States  Census  Reports  for  the  last 
two  census  years  give  the  following  number  of 
fowls  on  farms: 

Per  cent 

No.  fowls  No.  fowls  Increase  + 

June  ls  1900  April  15,  1910  Decrease-    - 

Chickens 233,566,021  280,345,133  +20 

Turkeys 6,594,695  3,688,708  -44 

Ducks 4,785,850  2,906,525  -39 

Geese 5,676,788  4,431,980  -21.9 

As  these  figures  do  not  include  the  fowls  kept 
on  village  lots,  they  probably  fall  far  short  of  rep- 
resenting the  actual  number  in  the  country.  It 
should  be  noticed  that  the  time  of  taking  the  last 
census  was  much  earlier  in  the  season  than  that 
of  the  previous  census.  So  the  difference  in  number 


Number  of  Fowls  3 

does  not  necessarily  mean  that  fewer  turkeys, 
ducks,  and  geese  are  now  kept  than  formerly,  for 
without  doubt  the  former  figures  include  more 
young  fowls  than  the  latter.  In  like  manner,  the 
number  of  chickens  determined  April  15  by  the 
1910  census  consists  largely  of  fowls  maintained 
for  breeding  purposes,  while  the  numbers  as  deter- 
mined by  the  enumerators  of  the  previous  census 
on  June  1  necessarily  included  many  young  fowls. 
Consequently  the  increase  in  the  development 
of  this  industry  in  this  country  is  without  doubt 
much  more  than  that  indicated  by  the  statistics 
of  the  census  reports. 

LITTLE   CAPITAL  REQUIRED 

To  a  person  contemplating  a  new  enterprise  or 
the  extension  of  a  business  already  established, 
one  of  the  first  questions  to  be  solved  is,  "What 
will  it  cost?"  It  often  happens  that  the  original  or 
first  cost  of  an  enterprise  prevents  persons  of 
moderate  resources  from  making  what  in  their 
judgment  would  be  a  safe  investment.  Probably 
there  is  no  important  branch  of  animal  industry 
that  requires  so  little  outlay  in  labor  and  money 
as  poultry-keeping  ,  Unlike  many  enterprises,  the 
poultry  business  may  be  begun  in  a  small  way  and 
conducted  successfully  with  the  expenditure  of  a 
very  meager  sum  of  money. 


4  Farm  Poultry 

Pure-bred  animals  possessing  individual  merit, 
of  families  or  of  strains  of  blood  that  are  recognized 
as  being  particularly  valuable  for  the  useful  pur- 
poses for  which  these  animals  are  maintained, 
have  a  high  market  value.  Consequently  one  who 
begins  with  approved  foundation  stock  must  invest 
considerable  capital  in  animals  that  are  to  be  the 
beginning  of  his  flock,  herd  or  stud,  as  the  case 
may  be,  before  he  really  commences  his  breeding 
operations.  With  poultry,  however,  a  small  begin- 
ning, which  is  often  desirable  in  order  to  give  the 
preliminary  training  necessary  to  final  success, 
may  be  made  with  the  resources  of  an  ordinary 
farm.  This  modest  beginning  would  not  in  any 
way  interfere  with  the  development  or  extension 
of  the  business  should  circumstances  and  expe- 
rience warrant  such  a  course.  In  this  respect  the 
poultry  business  furnishes .  a  marked  contrast  to 
some  other  lines  of  work,  particularly  to  those 
that  require  tools  and  machinery  to  place  a  finished 
product  upon  the  market.  If  the  business  be  largely 
increased,  new  and  larger  machines  must  be  obtained 
in  order  to  produce  with  the  greatest  economy, 
and  consequently  a  sacrifice  must  be  made  in  the 
equipment  of  the  original  small  plant. 

To  those  about  to  make  their  first  attempt  in 
poultry-keeping  on  an  extensive  scale,  it  may  be 
said  that  one  of  the  safest  ways,  if  not  the  only 
sure  way  to  success,  is  to  start  in  a  moderate  way 


Understand  the  Business  5 

and  to  delay  long  enough  to  learn  the  business 
thoroughly  before  much  is  invested.  Mistakes  will 
certainly  be  made  and  difficult  problems  will  pre- 
sent themselves  for  solution  before  success  can  be 
attained  in  any  extended  way.  Many  have  made 
the  experiment  of  investing  considerable  money 
and  labor  before  the  business  was  even  fairly  well 
understood,  and  failure,  or  discouragement — which 
often  amounts  to  the  same  thing — has  been  the 
consequent  result. 

While  failures  due  solely  to  inexperience  are 
in  evidence  most  of  the  time,  yet  new  recruits 
are  continually  rushing  forward  to  repeat  the  dis- 
aster. This  is  without  doubt  due  largely  to  the 
desire  on  the  part  of  many  to  accumulate  money 
rapidly  and  before  they  have  time  to  pass  through 
the  important  apprenticeship  of  learning  the  busi- 
ness. Undoubtedly  many  are  tempted  to  go  into 
the  poultry  business  on  a  somewhat  extensive 
scale  because  a  few  fowls  are  kept  on  many  farms 
seemingly  with  profit,  and  yet  without  much  care. 
The  small  flocks  that  have  the  run  of  the  farm 
may  thrive  with  little  care,  but  large  colonies  demand 
close  attention  from  one  who  has  passed  the  stage 
of  a  novice,  if  the  greatest  success  is  to  be  attained. 

Many  failures  in  the  poultry  business  have 
resulted  from  a  neglect  of  some  or  many  of  the  little 
details  so  necessary  to  success. 

Individuals    have    succeeded     admirably    even 


6  Farm  Poultry 

beyond  expectation,  when  they  were  able  person- 
ally to  look  after  the  business  and  to  see  that  nothing 
was  neglected,  but  failed  entirely  when  they  under- 
took to  greatly  enlarge  the  business  and  to  trust 
the  details  to  others  who  were  giving  their  services 
for  a  moderate  consideration. 

TIME   OF   YEAR   TO   BEGIN 

The  question  may  arise  as  to  the  best  time  of 
the  year  to  begin,  for  one  who  is  wholly  unacquainted 
with  any  of  the  phases  of  poultry  work. 

This  perhaps  is  not  so  important,  provided  the 
manner  of  making  the  beginning  has  been  fully 
decided  upon,  so  that  the  time  of  year  will  not 
wholly  determine  the  way  in  which  this  enterprise 
will  be  begun.  If  one  should  decide  to  make  a 
start  during  the  late  summer  or  fall  months,  in 
all  probability  it  will  be  found  quite  advantageous 
to  make  a  beginning  through  the  purchase  of  mature 
fowls.  Whereas,  if  the  beginning  should  be  made 
in  the  late  winter  or  early  spring,  eggs  may  be 
purchased  so  that  the  beginning  may  be  effected 
in  part  or  wholly  in  this  manner. 

If  time  and  circumstances  will  permit,  the  fall 
of  the  year  is  an  excellent  time  to  begin,  for  then 
fowls  may  be  purchased  somewhat  cheaper  than 
in  the  spring,  and  the  experience  of  caring  for  them 
during  the  winter  will  prove  of  great  value  during 


How  to  Begin  7 

the  coming  season  of  incubation  and  rearing  of 
young  fowls  with  its  many  new  experiences  and 
perplexities.  One  should  gain  all  knowledge  possible 
as  to  care  of  fowls  before  this  busy  season  approaches. 

COMPARATIVELY   LITTLE   LAND   NECESSARY 

Unless  it  is  desirable  to  raise  all,  or  nearly  all, 
of  the  grain  which  the  fowls  require,  on  the  same 
farms  on  which  they  are  kept,  comparatively  little 
land  will  be  required.  Especially  is  this  true  with 
ducks  and  chickens.  Turkeys,  on  account  of  their 
roving  nature,  do  best  when  given  a  wide  range. 
Laying  hens,  however,  will  do  well  when  confined 
in  a  comparatively  small  yard  or  "run"  if  the 
ground  is  kept  clean  by  cultivation.  Four  or  five 
acres  will  afford  ample  space  for  eight  hundred 
hens  if  suitable  arrangements  are  made  to  keep 
them  in  moderately  small  flocks.  This  amount  of 
land  will  also  provide  ample  space  for  the  rearing 
of  the  young  required  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
flock.  If  the  grain  food  be  purchased,  very  little 
land  will  be  necessary, — only  enough  for  the  houses, 
yards  and  sufficient  space  whereon  to  grow  the 
green  or  succulent  food.  A  very  small  area  will 
be  sufficient  on  which  to  raise  the  green  food  if 
the  land  be  kept  in  a  high  state  of  fertility.  It  is 
true  that  in  some  parts  of  the  year  it  will  be  advan- 
tageous to  have  a  wide  range,  if  one  can  be  provided. 


8  Farm  Poultry 

Fowls,  like  other  classes  of  live  stock,  require 
more  exercise  while  they  are  growing  and  devel- 
oping, and  do  best  in  a  large  run  or  park,  as  so 
much  depends  on  a  strong  body  and  constitution 
when  the  period  of  greatest  usefulness  is  reached. 
It  is  of  relatively  more  importance,  therefore,  to 
have  a  large  run  for  the  young  and  immature 
fowls  than  for  the  mature  birds  which  are  being 
maintained  solely  for  the  production  of  eggs.  Fat- 
tening fowls  require  comparatively  little  exercise, 
their  health  is  not  materially  impaired  by  a  short 
confinement,  and  more  rapid  gain  in  weight  is 
secured  by  confining  them. 

QUICK   RETURNS   FROM   MONEY   INVESTED 

Of  the  various  branches  of  animal  industry 
there  is  probably  none  that  brings  such  quick 
returns  as  poultry-keeping.  It  matters  not  whether 
the  poultry-raiser  desires  to  produce  eggs,  meat 
in  the  form  of  broilers,  mature  fowls,  or  capons, 
the  product  is  ready  for  the  market  within  a  com- 
paratively short  time.  Even  though  the  slowest 
method  be  pursued, — that  of  selecting  eggs  for 
hatching,  from  which  are  to  be  reared  the  fowls 
to  produce  eggs, — there  should  be  no  difficulty 
in  producing  for  the  market  in  from  five  to  eight 
months. 

With  other  classes  of  live  stock,   not  only  is 


Poultry  Raising  Attractive  9 

a  much  longer  time  required  in  which  to  secure 
returns,  but  also  a  greater  money  outlay  at  the 
beginning,  as  above  stated.  The  fact  that  so  little 
time  is  required  for  the  development  of  a  paying 
business  makes  poultry-keeping  an  attractive  field 
for  those  having  little  capital,  and  who  must  enter 
some  business  that  will  bring  quick  returns. 

MAY   BE    CONDUCTED   BY   PERSONS   OF   EITHER   SEX 

The  fact  that  the  poultry  business  requires 
little  land,  few  and  inexpensive  buildings  and  no 
heavy  and  complicated  machinery,  makes  it  well 
suited  to  persons  of  either  sex  who  are  unable 
physically,  or  who  do  not  desire,  to  perform  heavy 
manual  labor  or  any  work  that  requires  the  outlay 
of  considerable  effort  and  strength. 

Those  who  desire  to  work  more  or  less  out-of- 
doors,  and  who  are  willing  to  attend  regularly  to 
details,  may  find  congenial  employment,  and  may 
undertake  to  perform  the  necessary  operations  of 
poultry-keeping  without  the  feeling  that  they  are 
starting  in  a  business  for  which  they  are  not  fitted. 
It  will  frequently  be  noticed  that  success  in  business 
is  attained  by  those  who  for  various  reasons  are 
more  or  less  unfitted  for  the  work  which  they  have 
undertaken,  and  who  consequently  achieve  success 
through  great  perseverance  alone  in  the  face  of 
greater  difficulties  than  their  competitors  experience. 


10  Farm  Poultry 

Many  people  of  means  and  refined  tastes  have 
profitably  taken  up  the  study  and  occupation  of 
poultry-keeping  as  a  means  of  affording  health- 
ful out-of-door  exercise,  in  order  to  regain  failing 
health  or  to  afford  a  change  and  rest  from  pro- 
fessional activity.  Many  women  have  become 
expert  breeders,  or  producers  of  various  poultry 
products,  and  are  recognized  as  authorities  in  their 
respective  lines  of  work.  There  is  no'  branch  of 
animal  industry  that  offers  so  many  inducements 
to  women  as  some  of  the  various  branches  of  poultry- 
keeping,  particularly  if  they  desire  to  experiment 
in  the  production  of  new  forms,  or  to  improve  for 
their  particular  purpose  the  breed  or  variety  which 
they  have  selected  as  best  adapted  for  their  use. 

A   GREAT   VARIETY   OF    PRODUCTS 

Quite  unlike  other  lines  of  live-stock  work,  in 
which  only  a  few  products  are  raised  on  the  farm 
ready  for  the  market,  poultry-keeping  fortunately 
offers  to  the  poultryman  and  farmer  an  oppor- 
tunity to  choose  from  a  number  of  marketable 
products  those  which  he  prefers  to  provide,  or 
which  in  his  judgment  will  most  likely  bring 
pleasure  or  financial  success.  It  is  noticed  that 
circumstances  are  often  such  that  certain  lines 
of  poultry  work  can  be  conducted  with  greater 
success  than  others,  so  that  those  who  study  closely 


Choice  of  Products  11 

their  own  adaptabilities  are  enabled  to  select  at 
the  outset  the  line  of  work  that  is  likely  to  prove 
the  most  satisfactory. 

To  carry  out  this  idea  somewhat  further  by 
means  of  an  illustration,  it  will  readily  be  seen 
that  if  a  poultryman  had  a  somewhat  limited  space 
for  fowls,  including  both  buildings  and  yards,  so 
that  it  would  be  quite  impossible  to  keep  to  advan- 
tage more  than  a  few  hundred  at  most,  he  should 
either  devote  his  energy  to  the  production  of  fowls 
of  high  merit  for  breeding  purposes  or  confine  him- 
self to  egg  production.  The  rearing  of  young  fowls 
for  market  demands  more  space  both  in-  and  out- 
of-doors  than  a  business  of  the  same  magnitude  in 
which  egg  production  is  the  chief  object.  The 
various  classes  of  domestic  hen,  with  turkeys, 
ducks,  geese,  and  pigeons,  furnish  a  great  variety  of 
products  that  find  ready  sale  in  the  markets.  From 
these  the  farmer  or  poultryman  may  select  those 
that  offer  to  him  the  greatest  special  inducements. 

PRODUCTS   EASY   TO   MARKET 

With  modern  facilities  for  rapid  transportation, 
the  various  poultry  products  may  be  sent  to  market 
hundreds  of  miles  distant  and  be  placed  before 
the  consumer  in  excellent  condition.  Eggs  only 
a  few  days  old  may  be  served  as  food  after  being 
shipped  hundreds  of  miles  by  express. 


12  Farm  Poultry 

While  the  best  products  may  be  sent  long  dis- 
tances by  express  with  profit,  the  poorer  ones  sel- 
dom pay  for  the  extra  cost  of  rapid  transit.  Supe- 
rior products  create  new  demands.  Since  more 
attention  is  now  paid  to  poultry-raising  in  this 
country  than  was  given  to  the  industry  but  a  few 
years  ago,  many  highly  prized  special  articles 
have  been  produced  which  find  a  ready  market 
at  remunerative  prices  in  nearly  all  of  the  large 
cities.  As"  better  products  are  placed  on  the  market 
and  as  people  of  means  become  aware  of  this  fact, 
the  demand  for  a  good  article  soon  becomes  as 
strong  and  constant  as  that  for  the  cheaper  and 
more  staple  articles.  As  soon  as  a  worthy  article 
is  produced  regularly,  customers  are  ready  to  pur- 
chase. The  best  on  the  market  is  usually  sold  first, 
and  at  prices  considerably  in  advance  of  that  for 
common  or  ordinary  grades.  Better  work  with 
poultry  will  eventually  insure  better  products, 
which  find  ready  sales,  and,  in  turn,  create  new 
demands.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  each  person  who 
is  about  to  enter  the  poultry  business  to  produce 
the  best  which  the  market  affords.  The  greatest 
skill  is  required  to  furnish  the  best,  but  articles 
which  are  produced  with  great  skill  and  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  business  usually  yield  the  greatest 
profits. 


CHAPTER  II 

EGG  BREEDS  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  HEN 

AGRICULTURISTS  may,  for  convenience,  classify 
fowls  as  to  their  useful  qualities  as— 

Egg  Breeds  General-Purpose  Breeds 

Meat  Breeds  Fancy  Breeds 

While  this  classification  gives  considerable  infor- 
mation, in  a  general  way,  yet  it  should  not  be 
inferred  that  the  distinctions  between  these  classes 
are  constant  or  very  pronounced.  In  other  words, 
a  classification  that  is  based  on  utility  does  not 
make  use  of  positive  characteristics.  The  distinc- 
tions are  relative  and  therefore  quite  variable,  as 
the  usefulness  of  any  breed  will  depend  to  a  large 
extent  upon  various  conditions,  as  food,  care, 
climate,  etc.  Again,  the  so-called  general-purpose 
fowls  form  a  connecting  link  between  those  which 
are  most  highly  esteemed  as  egg  producers  and 
the  heavy,  clumsy  Asiatic  fowls,  whose  most  useful 
quality  is  the  production  of  large  bodies  that  are 
highly  valued  for  table  use.  From  the  nature  of 
the  classification  and  the  variation  of  the  fowls 
from  the  standpoint  of  usefulness,  it  will  readily 

(13) 


14  Farm  Poultry 

be  seen  that  different  breeders  may  honestly  differ 
as  to  the  exact  position  of  certain  breeds. 

To  further  illustrate,  what  would  be  recognized 
as  a  meat  breed  by  one  breeder  might  by  another 
be  placed  among  the  general-purpose  fowls  on 
account  of  its  good  laying  qualities.  As  we  find 
all  grades  of  domesticated  cattle,  from  the  heavy 
strictly  beef  type  on  the  one  hand,  whose  useful- 
ness lies  in  meat  production  alone,  to  the  dairy  cow 
on  the  other  hand,  whose  tendency  toward  milk 
production  is  so  strong  that  she  can  with  difficulty 
be  induced  to  lay  on  enough  flesh  to  look  well,  so 
do  we  find  many  intermediate  grades  of  fowls, 
from  the  large,  massive  form  noted  for  the  produc- 
tion of  flesh  to  the  small,  nervous  fowl  so  famed 
for  egg  production.  The  inexperienced  person 
will  find  more  or  less  confusion  on  account  of  this 
faulty  classification,  and  mistakes  are  to  be  expected, 
and  these  will  be  corrected  only  by  study  and 
observation. 

As  these  terms  are  current  and  are  likely  to 
be  used  in  the  future,  a  brief  discussion  of  them 
may  aid  in  arriving  at  a  better  understanding  of 
the  points  at  issue. 

The  egg  breeds  include  all  the  small  or  medium- 
sized  fowls  that  have  a  strong  tendency  toward  egg 
production.  They  are  generally  poor  sitters,  at 
least  while  young,  of  a  nervous  temperament,  being 
easily  frightened,  and  more  readily  take  to  flight 


Classes  Described  15 

than  do  the  other  breeds  that  are  noted  for  utility. 
They  are  maintained  for  the  production  of  eggs 
and  for  this  purpose  are  unexcelled.  Poultrymen 
who  rear  large  flocks  for  egg  production  find  it 
necessary,  and  often  remunerative,  to  dispose  as 
market  fowls  of  large  numbers  of  young  male  birds 
and  also  old  hens  that  have  passed  the  period  of 
greatest  usefulness  as  egg  producers;  yet  this  is 
incidental  to  the  production  of  eggs  and  should  not 
in  any  way  mask  the  fact  that  egg  production  is 
the  greatest  useful  quality  of  these  fowls.  The 
Leghorns,  Spanish,  Minorcas,  and  Hamburgs  are 
good  representatives  of  this  class. 

The  meat  breeds  are  larger  than  the  egg  or  the 
general-purpose  breeds.  The  largest  breeds  of 
fowls  are  represented  in  this  class.  They  are  gen- 
erally considered  to  be  poor  layers  except,  pos- 
sibly, in  a  few  cases  where  the  pullets  are  fairly  good 
winter  layers.  They  are  heavy-bodied,  slow-moving 
fowls,  of  gentle  disposition,  and  are  persistent 
sitters.  The  Brahmas,  Cochins,  and  Langshans 
are  representative  breeds  of  this  class. 

The  general-purpose  breeds,  as  the  term  indicates, 
include  those  fowls  that  are  of  medium  size  and 
furnish  a  good  quality  of  meat  when  properly  fattened 
and  prepared  for  table  use.  For  certain  methods 
of  cooking,  these  fowls  are  preferred  by  many  to 
the  larger  bodies  and  coarser-grained  flesh  of  the 
distinctively  meat  breeds.  As  these  fowls  are  good 


16  Farm  Poultry 

egg  producers,  when  kept  under  favorable  conditions 
for  egg  production,  they  have  become  most  popular 
with  a  large  class  of  poultry-keepers  who  main- 
tain comparatively  small  flocks  largely  to  supply 
the  demands  of  the  home  table.  Farmers  and  others, 
who  keep  a  few  fowls  as  a  secondary  consideration, 
find  this  class  most  useful.  Aside  from  furnishing 
the  home  table  they  are  sufficiently  economical 
in  the  production  of  both  eggs  and  meat  to  permit 
the  surplus  to  be  sold  on  the  market  to  good  advan- 
tage. The  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  and 
Rhode  Island  Reds,  are  familiar  breeds  of  this  class. 
The  fancy  breeds  include  those  fowls  that  are 
reared  on  account  of  their  peculiar  or  pleasing 
appearance,  and  are  not  bred  exclusively  for  utility. 
While  many  of  the  so-called  fancy  breeds  may 
serve  a  useful  purpose  in  furnishing  eggs  and  meat, 
they  cannot  successfully  compete  with  other  classes 
when  usefulness  alone  is  considered.  The  Polish, 
Bantams,  Frizzles,  and  Silkies  may  be  taken  as 
familiar  representatives. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  AND  SIZE  OF  EGG  BREEDS 

While  those  breeds  and  varieties  of  fowls  that 
may  be  classed  as  distinctively  egg  producers  vary 
somewhat  in  size  and  form,  yet  they  differ  so 
materially  from  the  general-purpose  and  meat  breeds 
that  they  may  well  be  placed  by  themselves  if  for 


Egg  Breeds  Described  17 

no  other  reason'  than  the  one  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic of  size.  Almost  without  exception  the 
noted  egg-producing  breeds  are  small  or  medium 
in  size  and  possessed  of  a  neat,  trim  appearance, 
which  gives  them  an  air  of  activity.  They  are 
also  somewhat  longer-legged  in  proportion  to  their 
size  than  the  meat  breeds,  yet  those  having  the 
most  robust  constitution  do  not  appear  to  be  small 
or  long-legged. 

While  mature  fowls  of  some  of  the  heaviest 
breeds  of  this  class  should  weigh  from  six  to  nine 
pounds,  yet  the  weight  is  seldom  mentioned  in 
descriptions  of  the  most  noted  egg -producers  of 
this  class.  This  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact 
that  egg  production  is  the  chief  consideration, 
regardless  of  the  weight  of  the  fowl. 

The  specific  purpose  for  which  these  fowls  are 
reared  being  egg  production,  the  breeder  does 
not  care  to  sacrifice  this  product  for  increased 
meat  production,  except  as  increased  vigor  in  the 
individual  is  likely  to  bring  an  increase  in  size, 
a  subject  that  is  discussed  somewhat  fully  in  the 
chapter  on  breeding. 

Disposition. — Almost  without  exception,  a  ner- 
vous, active  disposition  is  characteristic  of  the 
various  varieties  of  fowls  which  are  noted  for  egg 
production.  They  are  naturally  quick,  alert,  easily 
frightened,  and  when  once  thoroughly  aroused 
fly  almost  with  the  ease  of  wild  birds.  On  account 


18  Farm  Poultry 

of  this  activity,  they  like  a  wide  range  and  ordinarily 
do  best  when  not  closely  confined.  Many  varieties, 
however,  thrive  well  when  kept  within  inclosures, 
if  the  confinement  is  not  too  rigorous,  and  good 
judgment  is  exercised  in  providing  other  conditions 
that  are  most  sanitary  and  congenial  to  the  fowls. 

Whenever  inclosures  are  provided  to  restrict 
their  range,  careful  handling  is  necessary  in  order 
that  the  practice  of  using  their  wings  as  a  means 
of  locomotion  may  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible. 
Habit,  when  once  acquired,  is  not  easily  changed; 
consequently  breeders  find  it  difficult  to  correct 
the  annoying  tendency  to  fly  on  slight  provocation 
when  the  habit  is  well  formed.  Many  a  fine  fowl 
has  suffered  the  death  penalty  for  continually 
flying  over  inclosures.  Whenever  a  few  fowls  of 
a  flock  or  pen  have  acquired  the  habit  of  flying 
over  the  inclosures  or  fences,  a  reasonable  modi- 
fication of  the  inclosure  to  correct  the  evil  rarely 
suffices.  It  has  been  said  with  much  aptness 
that  "Egg  breeds  of  fowls,  like  honey  bees,  require 
slow  movements  and  careful  handling  from  the 
attendant,  for  success,  while  hasty  movements 
bring  annoyance  and  disaster." 

All  fowls  may  become  gentle  and  tame  by  con- 
tinued careful  handling,  so  that  the  charac- 
teristic alertness  of  the  egg  breeds  need  not  pre- 
vent the  use  of  these  types,  even  though  tame 
fowls  are  required.  Leghorn  and  Minorca  hens 


Carefulness  of  Handling  19 

have  frequently  been  seen  to  perch  on  a  basket 
carried  on  the  arm  of  an  attendant  who  was  enter- 
ing the  pen  or  yard,  in  order  that  they  might  secure 
the  first  morsel  of  a  coveted  food.  This  degree  of 
familiarity  is  attained  only  by  continued  thought- 
fulness  and  gentleness  on  the  part  of  the  attendant. 

The  nervous  fowls  of  the  egg  breeds,  even  though 
they  have  become  gentle  and  tame  by  careful  hand- 
ling, are  more  suspicious  of  strangers  than  are  the 
heavier  and  slower  moving  fowls  of  the  general- 
purpose  and  meat  breeds.  Consequently  many 
poultrymen  will  not  admit  strangers  to  the  yards 
and  pens  occupied  by  laying  hens. 

Early  maturity. — The  noted  egg  breeds  are 
classed  among  the  earliest  maturing  fowls.  In 
fact,  they  almost  form  a  class  by  themselves  if 
judged  from  a  standpoint  of  development.  Early 
in  life  they  assume  the  appearance  of  miniature 
adults,  both  in  general  outline  or  conformation 
and  in  the  growth  of  plumage. 

The  early  feathering  greatly  enhances  the  prob- 
ability of  the  young  chick  living  to  reach  maturity. 
Other  things  being  equal,  the  more  rapidly  the 
young  chick  "feathers  out"  the  more  hardy  it 
becomes.  The  time  when  a  young  fowl  is  growing 
feathers  rapidly  is  always  a  delicate  period  in  its 
existence.  It  is  well  known  by  those  who  keep  song 
birds  in  cages  that  the  molting  period  is  a  trying 
one  for  their  pets.  As  these  songsters  in  the  molt- 


20  Farm  Poultry 

ing  period  are  producing  feathers,  which  make 
great  demands  on  their  systems,  their  condition 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  young  fowl  that  is 
producing  feathers  for  protection  at  the  expense 
of  its  physical  organization.  It  is  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  for  a  fowl  having  a  weak  constitution 
to  produce  feathers  rapidly. 

While  all  egg  breeds  are  not  of  equal  hardiness 
in  this  respect,  yet  as  a  class  they  pass  rapidly 
through  the  most  delicate  periods  of  infancy, 
which  goes  a  long  way  toward  placing  them  as 
the  most  hardy  of  fowls.  The  individuals  of  egg 
breeds  develop  combs  and  wattles  early  in  life, 
which  still  further  give  them  the  appearance  of 
small  adults.  At  no  time  do  they  appear  so  ill 
proportioned  and  awkward  as  do  the  good-sized 
though  undeveloped  young  of  the  larger  breeds. 

Poor  sitters. — All  noted  egg-producing  fowls  are 
poor  and  uncertain  sitters.  The  term  "non-sitters" 
has  frequently  been  used  to  designate  various 
breeds  of  fowls  possessed  of  a  marked  tendency 
toward  egg  production  at  the  expense  of  a  dis- 
position to  incubate. 

Breeders  have  long  been  trying  to  further 
develop  the  tendency  of  egg  production  that  is 
inherent  in  all  the  Mediterranean  fowls,  which  has 
resulted  in  producing  an  exclusively  egg-producing 
machine.  The  marked  development  in  egg  pro- 
duction in  this  class  of  fowls  has  been  accomplished 


Unreliable  Incubators  21 

at  the  expense  of  other  desirable  qualities.  In 
other  words,  the  whole  energy  of  the  fowl  is  devoted 
to  the  one  particular  purpose  of  producing  eggs. 
That  is  so  far  as  the  breeders  and  improvers  have 
been  able  to  direct  the  energies  of  the  fowl  toward 
securing  increased  amount  of  useful  products.  So 
far  has  this  been  carried  that  breeders  are  now 
seeking  to  breed  fowls  having  stronger  constitutions, 
that  this  specialization  may  be  carried  to  a  still 
greater  extreme. 

The  tendency  toward  egg  production  has  become 
so  great  that  the  hen  has  comparatively  little 
desire  to  rear  young  and  otherwise  exercise  her 
maternal  instincts.  Almost  without  exception,  those 
breeds  of  fowls  that  are  noted  especially  for  egg 
production  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  natural 
incubation  if  any  considerable  number  of  fowls  are 
to  be  reared.  Breeders  are  therefore  compelled  to 
resort  to  artificial  incubation,  or  to  keep  largely  if 
not  wholly,  for  incubation,  some  fowls  of  another 
breed,  whose  maternal  instincts  make  them  good 
mothers.  Occasionally  individuals  of  the  egg  breeds 
become  "broody "  and  under  favorable  conditions 
prove  to  be  persistent  sitters,  but  too  frequently 
the  desire  to  incubate  is  but  a  fickle  one  and  indulged 
in  at  the  expense  of  the  owner  who  supplies  the 
"sitting  of  eggs."  As  the  hens  become  older  the 
tendency  to  incubate  becomes  stronger.  While 
these  fowls  are  extremely  poor  sitters,  yet  so  long 


22  Farm  Poultry 

as  they  continue  to  incubate,  though  it  be  some- 
what rarely,  the  term  "non-sitters"  cannot  strictly 
be  applied  to  them. 

Good  foragers. — These  egg  breeds  rank  among 
the  most  active  and  industrious  fowls,  as  many 
a  good  housewife  can  testify  whose  cherished 
flower  garden  has  undergone  a  system  of  surface 
culture  instituted  by  a  Leghorn  hen.  All  the  noted 
egg  producers  are  very  alert,  and  are  well  suited 
to  foraging,  and  may  obtain  a  considerable  portion 
of  their  living  if  a  wide  range  is  provided.  They 
are  not  only  active,  but  seem  to  be  constantly 
on  the  lookout  for  food.  It  is  true  that  often, 
under  otherwise  favorable  conditions,  they  seem 
to  endure  close  confinement  very  well.  This  is 
undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  hardy 
and  will  stand  more  or  less  abuse  and  still  maintain 
a  thrifty  appearance.  They  thrive  in  spite  of  con- 
finement, not  because  of  it.  The  most  skilful  breed- 
ers, who  are  unable  to  give  their  fowls  the  desired  run 
or  yard,  almost  invariably  provide  means  for  giving 
the  fowls  exercise,  which  may  be  done  by  requiring 
them  to  scratch  among  litter  for  their  food.  This 
will  in  a  degree  modify  the  evil  of  close  confinement. 

There  is  not  the  least  doubt  that  many  fowls 
that  are  now  kept  in  close  confinement  would  be  more 
healthy,  give  a  larger  percentage  of  fertile  eggs, 
and  in  the  end  prove  much  more  profitable  if  greater 
freedom  could  be  afforded  them. 


Sensitive  to   Cold  23 

Sensitiveness  to  cold. — All  of  the  noted  egg  breeds 
have  large  combs  and  wattles,  which  make  them 
sensitive  to  low  temperatures.  Some  of  the  breeds 
having  extremely  large  combs  and  wattles  are 
so  liable  to  have  them  frosted  in  the  colder  latitudes 
that  warm  quarters  must  be  provided,  if  the  pro- 
duction of  eggs  in  the  winter  time  is  a  requisite. 
Theory  and  practice  agree  that  a  lower  degree  of 
temperature  will  be  endured  without  serious  results 
if  the  quarters  occupied  by  the  fowls  are  free  from 
drafts.  These  fowls  may  become  accustomed  to 
a  comparatively  low  temperature  without  any 
injury  whatever  provided  actual  freezing  of  any 
parts  does  not  occur.  Pure  air,  even  though  it 
be  cold,  seems  quite  essential  to  the  highest  degree 
of  health  and  to  greatest  vigor. 

Breeders  have  sought  to  remedy  this  somewhat 
serious  objection  by  breeding  "rose-combs,"  that 
are  not  so  readily  frozen.  In  practice  this  is  found 
to  be  only  a  partial  remedy,  as  the  wattles,  when 
extremely  large,  are  almost  as  sensitive  to  cold 
as  the  large,  thin,  upright  combs. 

The  egg  breeds  are  much  closer  feathered  than 
the  fleshy  Asiatics  (Brahmas,  Cochins,  and  Lang- 
shans),  which  endure  low  temperatures  so  well. 
The  thicker  coat  of  fluffy  feathers  of  the  Asiatics 
undoubtedly  forms  a  thicker  dead-air  space  than 
do  the  thinner  and  more  compact  coats  of  the 
egg  breeds.  The  comparatively  long  and  naked 


24  Farm  Poultry 

shanks,  large  combs  and  wattles,  with  a  compact 
coat  of  feathers,  ill  prepare  the  latter  to  withstand 
IJie  severity  of  the  northern  winter  when  more  or 
less  exposed  by  the  neglect  or  indifference  too 
often  accorded  the  fowls  on  many  farms. 

It  should  not  be  inferred,  however,  that  these 
fowls  are  not  suited  to  the  northern,  central  and 
New  England  states,  for  they  are  the  best  winter 
layers  when  warm  and  comfortable  quarters  are 
provided.  Even  when  more  or  less  neglected  they 
may  still  prove  to  be  wholly  satisfactory  as  winter 
layers  on  account  of  their  hardiness  and  their 
great  natural  tendency  to  produce  eggs.  The  very 
fact  that  they  do  so  well  under  comparative  neglect 
is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  such  unsatisfactory 
results  in  poultry-keeping:  fowls  that  will  live  with 
little  care  are  likely  to  receive  little  care.  It  often 
happens  that  the  most  delicate  breeds  receive 
the  most  care. 

BREEDS   AND    VARIETIES 

The  most  noted  egg  breeds  now  reared  in  the 
United  States  include  the  so-called  Mediterranean 
fowls,  which  comprise  the  following  breeds:  Leg- 
horn, Minorca,  Ancona,  Andalusian,  and  Span- 
ish. To  these  should  be  added  the  Hamburg, 
Red  Cap,  and  perhaps  some  others.  Some  of  these 
breeds  are  further  subdivided  into  numerous  varie- 


Breeds  and   Varieties  25 

ties  which  partake  of  the  same  general  form  and 
disposition  but  differ  greatly  in  color  of  plumage. 

In  producing  so  great  a  variety  in  plumage  as 
seen  in  the  numerous  varieties  of  some  breeds, 
notably  the  Leghorn,  foreign  blood  has  been  intro- 
duced which  has  modified,  to  some  extent,  the 
laying  propensities.  At  first  thought  the  practice 
of  introducing  the  blood  of  an  alien  breed  in  the 
formation  of  a  new  variety  of  an  egg  breed  would 
be  condemned;  but  when  it  is  once  well  understood 
that  crossing  within  certain  limits  brings  increased 
vigor  to  the  progeny,  it  may  be  seen  that  for  egg 
production  alone  the  new  variety,  which  is  given 
a  little  more  robustness,  may  be  made  to  pro- 
duce as  many  eggs  by  a  process  of  moderately 
forced  feeding  as  the  somewhat  more  delicate  pure 
breed  whose  inherent  tendency  to  egg  production 
may  be  a  little  stronger. 

Leghorn. — This  is  one  of  the  Mediterranean 
breeds  whose  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  city  of  Leghorn,  in  Italy,  whence  they 
are  thought  to  have  been  brought  to  America. 
The  early  history  of  the  breed  is  now  more  or  less 
obscure,  and  this  is  due,  no  doubt,  in  a  large  degree, 
to  the  fact  that  they  were  unpopular  for  many 
years  after  they  were  introduced  into  this  country. 
Although  they  are  credited  with  being  introduced 
in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  it 
was  not  until  after  the  middle  of  the  century  that 


26  Farm  Poultry 

they  attracted  much  attention.  As  the  popular 
animals  and  crops  are  most  written  about,  it  is 
not  strange  that  a  more  or  less  unpopular  breed 
should  pass  for  nearly  half  a  century  with  com- 
paratively slight  notice.  Since  the  introduction 


FIG.  1.   A  White  Leghorn  cockerel. 

of  the  Leghorns,  however,  they  have  been  consider- 
ably changed  and  bred  to  that  degree  of  perfec- 
tion that  has  designated  them  an  Americanized, 
if  not  an  American  breed.  In  the  early  history 
of  these  fowls  in  this  country  they  were  spoken 


Varieties  of  Leghorns 


27 


of  as  being  of  various  colors  yet  all  partaking  of 
the  same  general  nature,  and  were  recognized  as 
belonging  to  the  same  breed.  The  different  va- 


FIG.  2.  White  Leghorns. 

rieties  that  are  now  recognized  had  not  then  been 
formed. 

All  varieties  of  Leghorns  are  comparatively 
small  in  size,  and  consequently  are  not  well  suited 
to  those  who  depend  largely  upon  their  fowls  for 


28  Farm  Poultry 

the  supply  of  fresh  meat  for  the  table.  They  are 
active  and  do  not  fatten  so  readily  under  ordinary 
conditions  as  larger  and  less  active  breeds.  These 
fowls  are  hardy,  and  all  varieties  are  good  layers, 
most  of  them  being  extremely  prolific. 

The  fact  of  their  being  hardy  in  all  stages  of 
development,  as  well  as  extremely  good  layers, 
fits  them  for  the  farm,  where  a  considerable  revenue 
is  expected  from  the  sale  of  eggs  and  where  com- 
paratively little  importance  is  placed  on  the  pro- 
duction of  meat.  They  are  noted  for  laying  early 
in  life;  frequently  early-hatched  pullets  lay  at 
five  months  of  age  and  under  favorable  conditions 
will  lay  well  throughout  the  winter  and  summer 
months.  Many  records  of  more  than  two  hundred 
eggs  per  year  from  single  birds  are  known,  and  even 
large  flocks  have  produced  two  hundred  eggs  per 
hen  in  a  single  year. 

The  Leghorns  are  comparatively  light  eaters 
and  are  somewhat  less  expensive  to  raise  to  maturity 
than  larger  and  heavier-bodied  fowls.  All  va- 
rieties of  Leghorns  are  active  and  do  best  if  given 
wide  liberty  and  if  permitted  to  take  much  exercise 
in  search  of  food. 

The  varieties  of  the  Leghorn  breed  are: 

Single-comb  Brown  Single-comb  Buff 

Rose-comb  Brown  Rose-comb  Buff 

Single-comb  White  Single-comb  Black 

Rose-comb  White  Silver 


Varieties  29 

All  varieties  except  the  Rose-combs  have  large 
single  combs,  which,  in  the  males,  should,  be  thin, 
firm  and  erect.  In  the  females  they  should  fall 


FIG.  3.   Buff  Leghorn  cockerel  (one-fifth  size). 

gracefully    to    one    side,    particularly    during    the 
laying  period. 

The  White  and  the  Brown  varieties  are  older 
than  the  others  and  are  usually  selected  when  egg 
production  is  the  sole  object.  Some  of  the  new 


30  Farm  Poultry 

varieties  have  not  been  bred  pure  long  enough  to 
become  thoroughly  fixed  in  their  distinctive  char- 
acteristics. 

There  is  practically  no  difference  between  the 
White  and  the  Brown  varieties  in  the  number  of 
eggs  produced.  The  White,  however,  lays  some- 
what larger  eggs  than  the  Brown,  and  the  shells 
are  of  a  purer  white;  that  is,  the  shells  of  the  Brown 
Leghorn  are  a  little  tinted,  although  they  readily 
pass  for  .white  eggs.  The  color  of  the  shells  is  of 
minor  importance,  although  it  is  recognized  as  one 
of  the  fancy  points  when  highest-priced  eggs  are 
produced.  In  some  markets  white  eggs  sell  for  the 
highest  prices ;  in  other  markets  brown  eggs  are 
preferred.  Under  ordinary  conditions  the  difference 
in  the  color  will  be  of  little  or  no  value.  If,  however, 
the  poultryman  desires  to  produce  the  highest- 
priced  eggs,  some  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
color  and  other  characteristics  which  go  to  make 
up  uniformity  of  product. 

It  needs  no  argument  to  sustain  the  assertion 
that,  other  things  being  equal,  those  fowls  that 
lay  the  largest  eggs  are  to  be  preferred.  At  first 
thought  it  may  appear  to  be  of  more  importance 
to  those  who  aim  to  produce  eggs  for  their  own 
table  than  to  those  who  produce  eggs  for  the  market 
to  be  sold  by  the  dozen.  It  should  not  be  forgotten, 
however,  that  continued  success  in  any  business 
requires  the  business  man  to  satisfy  his  customers. 


Size  of  Eggs  31 

He  should  aim,  therefore,  to  produce  good-sized 
eggs,  which  will  be  acceptable  not  only  as  to  quality 
but  also  as  to  weight.  It  will  be  evident  to  all 
that  those  fowls  which  lay  the  greatest  weight  of 
eggs  during  the  year  will  be  the  most  economical 
for  the  farmer  to  keep  to  supply  the  wants  of  his 


FIG.  4.   Buff  Leghorn  pullet  (one-sixth  size). 

own  table.  The  difference  in  expense  of  keeping 
fowls  which  lay  different-sized  eggs  is  not  commen- 
surate with  the  difference  in  the  value  of  the  prod- 
uct. This  subject  will  be  given  a  fuller  discussion 
in  another  chapter. 

It  is  asserted  that  some  of  the  other  and  newer 
varieties  of  Leghorns  are  equally  as  good  egg  pro- 


32  Farm  Poultry 

ducers  as  the  White  and  the  Brown  varieties.  How- 
ever, the  majority  of  practical  poultrymen  who 
have  selected  a  variety  of  the  Leghorns  and  have 
entered  into  the  business  of  egg  production  for 
profit  select  either  the  White  or  the  Brown  variety. 
Fowls  of  a  solid  color,  like  the  White  or  the  Black 
variety  of  the  Leghorn  breed,  often  prove  most 


FIG.  5.    Single-comb  Brown  Leghorn  hen  (two-thirteenths  size). 

satisfactory  in  the  hands  of  a  poultryman  whose 
primary  object  is  to  produce  eggs,  and  whose  sec- 
ondary object  is  to  sell  his  surplus  stock  for  breed- 
ing purposes  at  something  more  than  the  price  of 
which  dressed  poultry  brings  in  the  market.  The 
reason  for  this  is  readily  seen  when  we  consider 
that  old  fowls  must  be  disposed  of  and  be  replaced 
by  younger  and  more  vigorous  stock.  Such  stock 


Develop    Useful  Qualities  83 

may  frequently  be  sold  and  used  for  breeders  after 
having  served  a  period  of  forced  egg  production, 
provided  it  represents  fairly  well  the  type  of  fowls 
to  which  it  belongs.  Fowls  are  more  likely  to  rep- 
resent a  type  in  color  if  they  are  solid-colored  than 
if  the  plumage  is  distinguished  by  various  markings, 
as  seen  in  many  of  the  useful  breeds.  In  other 
words,  the  poultryman  finds  it  much  easier  to  develop 
the  one  point  of  egg  production  than  to  breed 
for  plumage  and  develop  for  egg  production  at  the 
same  time.  One  important  principle  in  stock  breed- 
ing should  not  be  forgotten, — that  it  is  much  easier 
to  develop  one  useful  quality  to  its  greatest  per- 
fection than  to  develop  two  qualities  which  are 
not  closely  correlated.  Consequently,  it  is  found 
much  easier  to  produce  strong,  robust  fowls  of  a 
solid  color  for  egg  production  than  to  produce 
equally  good  birds  of  a  colored  variety,  for  both 
exhibition  and  useful  qualities. 

Minorca. — This  breed  is  thought  to  have  been 
introduced  into  England  from  the  island  of  Minorca 
in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  it  is  said  by  some 
poultry  authorities  to  be  the  progenitor  of  the  White- 
faced  Black  Spanish  breed.  The  varieties  of  this 
breed  are: 

Single-comb  Black  Rose-comb  Black 

Single-comb  White 

These  are  the  heaviest  of  the  Mediterranean 
fowls. 


34 


Farm  Poultry 


Of  the  Single-comb  Black  variety  the  cock 
should  weigh  9  and  the  hen  7^  pounds.  Of  the 
other  varieties  the  cock  should  weigh  8  and  the 
hen  6^  pounds. 


FIG.  6.   Black  Minorca  cockerel  (one-seventh  size). 

They  have  the  great  laying  tendencies  of  the 
fowls  of  this  class.  Lewis  Wright,  writing  of  Eng- 
lish fowls,  places  them  second  on  the  list  of  egg 
producers.  In  appearance  they  resemble  the  Leg- 
horns, although  they  have  larger  combs  and  wattles. 
The  solid  color  is  in  their  favor,  although  there  is 
a  tendency  toward  white  in  the  primaries  of  the 


Minorcas  35 

Black  variety.  They  have  not  been  so  popular 
for  egg  production  as  the  Leghorns,  although  they 
are  coming  more  into  popular  favor.  The  eggs  of 
this  breed  are  large  and  white.  They  average  about 
eight  to  the  pound.  As  Americans  prefer  fowls 
having  yellow  skin  and  shanks,  the  Minorcas  are 


FIG.  7.   Black  Minorca  hen  (one-seventh  size). 

therefore  placed  at  a  disadvantage,  as  their  skin  is 
white  and  the  shanks  and  feet  of  a  dark  leaden 
color  approaching  black. 

Andalusian. — This  breed  is  thought  to  be  native 
to  Andalusia,  a  province  in  the  southern  part 
of  Spain.  It  is  a  large,  hardy  breed  of  the  Med- 


36  Farm  Poultry 

iterranean  class.  These  fowls  have  not  been  popular 
in  the  United  States,  partly  owing,  no  doubt,  to 
the  color  of  their  skin  and  shanks.  The  skin  is 
white  and  the  shanks  and  toes  are  slaty  blue.  For 
farm  purposes  they  are  considered  about  the  same 
as  the  Minor cas.  There  is  only  one  variety  pf  this 
breed — the  Blue.  The  plumage  is  of  a  bluish  gray 
or  dove  color,  approaching  black  on  the  back. 
They  do  not  breed  so  true  to  color  as  some  of  the 
other  breeds  of  this  class.  They  are  excellent  layers 
but  are  not  supplanting  the  Leghorns  for  this  pur- 
pose. They  are  classed  with  the  non-sitters,  but 
have  a  somewhat  greater  tendency  to  incubate 
than  Leghorns  do.  The  cock  should  weigh  6  and 
the  hen  5  pounds. 

Spanish. — Now  known  as  the  White-faced  Black 
Spanish.  This  breed  has  been  bred  pure  for  a  great 
many  years  in  England.  It  is  called  the  oldest 
of  the  non-sitting  varieties.  There  seems  to  be  no 
doubt  in  the  minds  of  many  authorities  that  this 
Spanish  breed  came  from  some  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries,  and  probably  from  Spain.  The 
fowls  are  somewhat  longer-legged  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  body  than  the  other  breeds  of 
this  class.  They  are  glossy  black  throughout, 
without  any  white  or  gray  feathers.  The  shanks 
and  toes  are  dark  in  color,  leaden  blue  approach- 
ing black.  The  Spanish  is  not  so  hardy  as  the 
other  breeds  mentioned,  particularly  when  imma- 


White-faced  Black  Spanish  37 

ture  and  subjected  to  more  or  less  dampness.  The 
chickens  do  not  feather  so  rapidly  as  the  Leghorns 
and  are  considered  more  delicate.  On  account,  no 
doubt,  of  the  somewhat  more  delicate  constitution, 
the  eggs  are  more  or  less  infertile,  and  breeders 
consequently  are  forced  to  keep  a  somewhat  smaller 
number  of  females  with  one  male  than  with  other 
breeds  of  fowls  noted  for  egg  production.  Breed^ 
ers  have  attempted,  and  succeeded  in  a  large  meas- 
ure, in  developing  more  fancy  points  with  the 
White-faced  Black  Spanish  than  with  other  noted 
egg  breeds  of  a  solid  color.  This  breeding  for 
fancy  points  is  thought  to  have  weakened  the  con- 
stitution considerably.  On  account  of  the  develop- 
ment of  these  fancy  points,  some  practical  poultry- 
keepers  are  inclined  to  consider  the  Spanish  as  a 
fancy  breed  rather  than  to  class  it  among  the  most 
useful  ones.  While  they  will  undoubtedly  produce 
a  good  supply  of  eggs  under  favorable  conditions, 
yet  the  fact  remains  that  few  if  any  practical  poul- 
trymen  select  them  solely  for  egg  production. 
The  white  face  is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  this 
fowl,  as  the  white  of  the  face  and  the  ear  lobe  form 
a  continuous  smooth,  white  surface  extending 
down  below  the  wattles  and  uniting  in  front.  They 
have  large,  single  combs.  For  farm  purposes  they 
should  be  placed  after  the  Leghorns,  Minorcas, 
Andalusians,  and  Anconas. 

Hamburg. — The  Hamburgs  have  long  been  known 


38  Farm  Poultry 

as  prolific  egg  producers.     This  breed  consists  of 
six  varieties: 

Goldeii-spangled  Golden-penciled 

Silver-spangled  Silver-penciled 

White  Black 

The  Hamburg  breed  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land from  Holland  or  North  Germany,  and  eventu- 
ally took  the  name  of  the  noted  seaport,  Hamburg, 
although  they  were  known  at  that  time,  and  for 
many"  years  after  their  introduction  into  Great 
Britain,  as  the  " Dutch  every-day  layers,"  or  "ever- 
lasting layers."  They  are  small,  active  fowls,  and 
are  recognized  as  being  extremely  good  layers  if 
kept  under  favorable  conditions.  It  is  said  that 
when  properly  kept  they  will  equal  the  Leghorns  in 
egg  production,  although  as  a  matter  of  fact  com- 
paratively few  poultrymen  select  Hamburgs  in  pref- 
erence to  the  Mediterranean  fowls  when  egg  pro- 
duction is  the  sole,  or  even  the  chief,  object.  They 
are  quite  as  difficult  to  keep  in  confinement  as  any 
of  the  Mediterraneans,  being  small,  light,  and  easily 
frightened.  Their  tendency  to  fly  makes  it  difficult 
to  keep  them  in  the  yards  or  runs.  Of  all  breeds, 
probably  there  is  none  that  likes  a  wide  range 
better  than  the  Hamburgs.  Their  eggs  are  small 
and  white,  being  somewhat  smaller  than  those  of 
the  Leghorns.  All  varieties  have  blue,  or  leaden 
blue,  shanks  and  toes,  except,  possibly,  the  Black, 
which  may  have  dark,  leaden  blue  or  black  shanks 


Hamburgs  39 

and  toes.  All  have  rose  combs,  which  terminate  in  a 
spike  or  point  at  the  rear.  This  point  is  usually  some- 
what elevated,  and  is  one  of  the  characteristic 
features  of  the  Hamburg  comb.  When  these  fowls 
are  entered  for  competition  at  shows  or  exhibitions 
there  is  no  weight  qualification.  Their  small  size 


FIG.  8.    Silver-spangled  Hamburg  cock. 

makes  them  unprofitable  as  table  fowls;  then,  too, 
the  color  of  their  shanks  and  skin  is  against  them 
for  table  use.  The  chickens  are  not  noted  for  their 
vigor,  and  it  is  said  that  both  old  and  young  are 
likely  to  suffer  from  want  of  cleanliness  more  than 
any  other  egg  breed,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  the  White-faced  Black  Spanish.  Wright  says 
they  do  not  stand  crowding  well,  and  that  " where 


40  Farm  Poultry 

six  Brahmas  could  be  kept,  four  Hamburgs  are 
quite  enough." 

Red  Cap. — This  is  recognized  as  a  distinct 
breed,  yet  the  fowls  resemble  the  Hamburgs  in 
many  respects.  They  are  somewhat  larger  than 
the  Hamburgs,  and  compare  with  them  in  size 
much  as  the  Minorcas  compare  with  the  Leg- 
horns. They  are  quite  hardy,  and  are  extremely 
good  layers.  They  have  large  rose  combs,  which 
have  "a  tendency  to  grow  somewhat  irregular. 
This  makes  them  difficult  to  breed  for  exhibition 
purposes.  They  have  slate-colored  shanks.  The 
plumage  is  red  and  black.  Cocks  should  weigh 

,  hen  6j/£,  cockerel  6,  and  pullet  5  pounds. 


CHAPTER   III 

MEAT   BREEDS 

THOSE  breeds  that  are  reared  especially  for 
the  production  of  meat,  either  for  home  consump- 
tion or  for  the  market,  are  good-sized,  compactly 
built  fowls,  probably  of  Asiatic  origin.  They  are 
much  heavier  than  those  that  are  reared  especially 
for  egg  production  and  differ  from  them  almost 
as  much  in  general  outline  as  they  do  in  size  and 
weight.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  term 
"meat  breeds,"  as  used  in  this  volume,  refers  chiefly 
to  those  breeds  whose  greatest  usefulness  is  in  the 
production  of  meat.  While  the  quality  of  the 
flesh  of  these  fowls  may  not  exceed,  or  even  equal, 
the  flesh  of  some  other  breeds,  yet  on  account  of 
their  large  size  they  are  especially  prized  for  table 
use  under  certain  conditions.  As  a  good-sized 
roast  of  meat  is  preferred  to  a  small  one,  so  large 
fowls  are  preferred  for  certain  methods  of  cooking. 
Certain  it  is  that  large  fowls  are  usually  served  to 
better  advantage  than  small  ones. 

As  a  rule,  the  noted  meat  breeds  are  larger, 
more  compact  and  "blocky"  than  the  Mediter- 
raneans. They  are  broader  and  deeper  in  body, 

(41) 


42  Farm  Poultry 

fuller  in  breast  and  have  shorter  necks  and  legs. 
While  some  of  the  intermediate,  or  general-purpose 
fowls,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are  reared 
wholly  for  their  flesh,  they  should  not  be  classi- 
fied with  the  distinctively  meat  breeds.  The  latter 
fowls  produce,  under  favorable  conditions,  a  good 
number  of  eggs,  which,  together  with  their  size, 
warrants  placing  them  in  the  intermediate  class, 
which  may  be  called  general-purpose  breeds,  for 
convenience  of  discussion.  Whatever  may  be  said 
of  those  fowls  noted  for  meat  production  will  apply 
only  in  part  to  the  smaller  general-purpose  fowls, 
so  far  as  they  enter  into  competition  for  meat  pro- 
duction. As  a  matter  of  fact,  many  of  the  so-called 
general-purpose  fowls  are  reared  extensively  for 
meat  production,  but  they  are  nevertheless  of  a 
different  type  from  the  large,  heavy,  phlegmatic 
breeds,  whose  greatest  usefulness  is  in  the  produc- 
tion of  large,  plump  bodies,  most  highly  prized  for 
table  use.  These  meat  breeds  form  a  class  by  them- 
selves even  when  the  fowls  are  considered  from 
the  standpoint  of  weight  only. 

Disposition. — Without  exception,  all  the  noted 
meat  breeds  are  slow  and  more  or  less  sluggish 
in  movement  and  are  not  easily  frightened.  They 
become  very  tame  and  gentle  with  careful  treat- 
ment and  do  not  show  a  dislike  to  handling,  as 
do  some  of  the  smaller  and  more  nervous  breeds. 
They  are  not  well  calculated  to  seek  their  own 


Quiet  Fowls  43 

living,  even  though  a  wide  range  be  provided. 
They  have  little  desire  to  roam  far  from  home  unless 
compelled  to  do  so  in  search  of  food.  Even  then 
their  slow  and,  in  many  cases,  awkward  move- 
ments totally  unfit  them  for  foraging  for  insects 
and  other  foods  which  nature  provides,  in  com- 
petition with  more  active  breeds.  Preeminently, 
they  are  fowls  which  should  be  fed,  rather  than 
allowed  to  shift  for  themselves.  As  the  more  active, 
nervous  Mediterraneans  illustrate  an  ideal  fowl  for 
foraging,  so  the  heavy,  clumsy,  phlegmatic  meat 
breeds  represent  the  opposite  extreme,  or  that  of 
gentleness  and  docility. 

Easily  confined. — If  only  the  heavy-bodied  fowls 
are  to  be  reared  on  farms  where  all  fowls  are  to 
be  kept  within  enclosures,  comparatively  low  fences 
will  suffice.  When  mature,  fowls  of  the  heaviest 
breeds  rarely  fly  from  the  ground,  and  are  satisfied 
with  comparatively  low  perches.  On  account  of 
their  gentle  dispositions  they  make  most  excellent 
"lawn  fowls,"  and  may  be  given  liberty  without 
fear  of  trespassing  on  the  holdings  of  a  near-by 
neighbor.  In  the  minds  of  many,  a  few  fowls  on 
the  back  lawn  during  certain  portions  of  the  year 
add  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  surroundings  and 
bring  pleasure  to  the  owner,  who  delights  in  the 
freedom  of  his  birds.  This  is  particularly  true  if 
he  is  assured  that  these  birds,  which,  in  a  sense, 
have  become  pets,  are  quite  certain  not  to  annoy 


44  Farm  Poultry 

either  the  members  of  his  own  household  or  his 
neighbors.  There  are  probably  no  breeds  of  fowls 
so  well  suited  to  have  the  liberties  of  a  small  farm 
or  lot  as  these  slow-moving  Asiatics. 

Laying  qualities. — The  laying  qualities  of  these 
fowls  are  considerably  below  the  average,  and,  as 
a  rule,  are  not  to  be  compared  with  those  of  the 
more  active  fowls  which  originated  in  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 

The  useful  qualities  of  animals  reach  the  highest 
state  of  development  when  one  quality  is  developed 
at  the  expense  of  others.  Experience  has  shown 
that  it  has  not  been  possible  to  develop  in  the  same 
individual  or  breed  two  or  more  useful  qualities  to 
the  highest  stage  of  perfection.  The  two  most 
highly  prized  useful  qualities  in  our  domesticated 
fowls  are  meat  and  egg  production.  When  one  is 
unusually  well  developed  the  other  is  lessened  in 
value  or  importance,  so  that  both  are  never  developed 
to  the  greatest  extent  in  one  individual.  Admirable 
illustrations  are  seen  in  the  development  of  animals 
that  are  highly  prized  for  the  production  of  meat 
or  of  milk.  In  no  instance  has  the  best  milker  been 
most  highly  prized  for  meat  production.  A  similar 
condition  exists  in  the  poultry  world.  While  the 
breeding  of  fowls  solely  for  egg  production,  or  for 
meat  production,  has  reached  a  high  state  of  per- 
fection, yet  these  two  qualities  are  not  brought  to 
the  highest  stage  of  perfection  in  one  individual. 


Deficient  as  Egg  Producers  45 

The  development  of  either  is  largely  held  to  be  a 
matter  of  food  and  constitutional  vigor,  although 
some  investigations  tend  to  show  some  differences 
between  egg  production,  a  reproductive  function, 
and  other  useful  qualities  that  previously  had  not 
been  given  so  careful  consideration.  This  is  dis- 
cussed more  fully  in  the  chapter  on  breeding. 

The  relative  importance  of  meat  production  and 
egg  production  in  this  country  is  continually  becom- 
ing more  widely  separated  as  the  price  of  food  and 
labor  advances.  The  importance  of  egg  production 
is  steadily  advancing  faster  than  that  of  meat  pro- 
duction, just  as  the  dairy  interests  of  the  country 
are  becoming  of  far  greater  importance  than  the 
beef  interests. 

This  condition  has  a  tendency  to  cause  undue 
claims  to  be  made  for  the  meat  breeds  as  to  egg 
production.  Those  about  to  purchase  fowls  to  be 
used  as  foundation  stock  for  a  flock  should  not  be 
misled  by  any  claims  that  breeders  of  meat  breeds 
may  make  as  to  the  profitable  egg  production  of 
their  fowls. 

While  some  breeds  or  varieties  of  large  fowls, 
notably  the  Light  Brahmas,  are  good  winter  layers 
while  young,  yet  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  from  any 
records  these  fowls  may  have  made  that  they  are 
equal  to  some  of  the  Mediterranean  breeds  as 
economical  egg-producing  machines,  when  the  entire 
life  of  the  fowl  is  taken  into  consideration.  The 


46  Farm  Poultry 

modern  poultryman  regards  his  fowls  much  as  a 
manufacturer  regards  his  machine,  and,  in  either 
case,  the  machine  that  will  run  at  its  fullest  capacity 
for  the  longest  period,  other  things  being  equal, 
will  bring  to  the  owner  the  most  profit.  While 
poultry-keepers  may  rightly  consider  their  fowls 
as  machines  for  the  production  of  meat  and  eggs, 
yet  it  should  be  understood  that  it  is  not  only 
desirable,  but  necessary,  that  the  successful  poul- 
tryman "regard  his  flock  from  a  standpoint  other 
than  a  purely  business  one.  It  is  necessary  to  the 
most  successful  poultry  business  that  the  poul- 
tryman love  his  fowls.  Unless  the  live-stock  owner 
has  a  love  for  the  animals  under  his  charge,  and 
which  is  entirely  distinct  from  the  purpose  for 
which  he  is  breeding  them,  he  is  not  likely  to 
study  their  necessities  and  comforts. 

The  distinctive  meat  breeds  include  all  of  the 
Asiatics,  namely,  the  Brahmas,  Cochins,  and  Lang- 
shans.  Of  the  Brahmas,  there  are  two  varieties, 
the  Light  and  the  Dark.  The  Cochins  are  rep- 
resented by  four  varieties, — Buff,  Partridge,  White, 
and  Black;  while  the  Langshans  have  but  two 
varieties, — Black  and  White. 

Late  maturity. — It  is  well  understood  that  in 
the  development  of  animal  life  large  size1  is  not 
conducive  to  early  maturity.  Thus,  heavy  meat 
breeds  require  a  much  longer  time  in  which  to  reach 
maturity  than  do  the  smaller,  more  active  fowls. 


Late   Maturing  47 

On  this  account  the  chicks  are  considered  somewhat 
more  delicate.  This  is  because  they  require  a  much 
longer  time  while  passing  the  early  and  critical  periods 
of  their  existence.  Little  chickens  are  more  delicate 
than  mature  fowls;  consequently,  the  longer  the 
time  required  to  pass  through  the  juvenile  period 
the  more  difficult  they  are  to  rear.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  little  chicks  are  well  suited  to  withstand 
the  hardships  of  early  life  if  they  are  kept  dry  and 
clean.  The  young  of  some  varieties  are  much  better 
protected  with  down  and  feathers  than  others. 

BRAHMAS 

These  are  frequently  called  the  leading  breed 
of  the  Asiatics.  Light  Brahmas,  particularly,  have 
long  been  popular  with  many  poultry-keepers 
throughout  the  country.  The  origin  of  these  fowls 


FIG.  9.   A  flock  of  Light  Brahmas. 


48  Farm  Poultry 

is  somewhat  obscure.  Wright  and  others  think 
that  they  probably  have  descended  from  the  fowls 
of  India,  while  Tegetmeier  asserts  that  this  breed 
was  probably  formed  in  America. 

A    distinctive    feature    of   the    Brahmas    is    the 
comb,  which  is  known  as  the  pea-comb.   It  is  unlike 


FIG.  10.  Dark  Brahma  cock  (one-eighth  size). 

either  the  rose  or  ttye  single  comb.  The  pea-comb 
has  been  described  as  the  union  of  three  single 
combs,  joined  at  the  front,  rear  and  base,  the  middle 
comb  being  somewhat  larger  than  the  other  two. 
Each  comb  should  have  distinct  serrations. 

The    Brahmas    are    large    fowls, — in    fact,    the 
largest  variety  known  is  the  Light  Brahma.     The 


Characteristics  of  Brahmas 


49 


Light  Brahma  cock  should  weigh  12  and  the  hen 
9}/2  pounds.  The  Dark  Brahmas  are  a  pound 
lighter.  The  Brahmas  have  yellow  skin  and  shanks, 
and  the  outer  sides  of  the  shanks  are  feathered. 
Leg-feathering  is  undoubtedly  a  protection  during 
the  severe  winter  weather,  but  it  is  somewhat  objec- 


Fia.  11.   Dark  Brahma  hen  (one-seventh  size). 

tionable,  as    the   majority    of    consumers    prefer  a 
clean-legged  fowl. 

The  young  birds  do  not  "feather  out"  so  rap- 
idly as  the  young  of  the  Mediterraneans,  and  con- 
sequently are  ill-looking  while  young  on  account 
of  their  partially  naked  appearance.  Sometimes 


50  Farm  Poultry 

this  partial  nakedness  continues  throughout  a 
considerable  period  of  their  growth.  Some  farmers 
object  to  Brahmas  on  account  of  this  slow  feather- 
ing, but  this  characteristic  cannot  detract  materially 
from  their  usefulness. 

When  not  injured  by  breeding  for  fancy  points, 
as  sometimes  is  done  in  the  production  of  fowls 
for  exhibition,  the  pullets  make  good  winter  layers. 
For  egg  production,  however,  they  should  not 
be  kept  longer  than  two  years.  If  the  pullets  are 
early  hatched  and  mature  reasonably  early,  for 
Brahmas,  they  should  not  be  kept  longer  than  one 
complete  season  of  usefulness  if  egg  production  is 
an  important  essential. 

The  Dark  Brahmas  are  not  considered  to  be  as 
good  layers  as  the  Light  variety,  and  are  quite 
as  difficult  to  breed  true  to  color.  The  Dark  Brah- 
mas have  somewhat  delicate  feather  markings 
which  are  difficult  to  produce  with  that  degree  of 
excellence  necessary  for  exhibition  purposes. 

The  Brahmas  are  good  sitters,  in  fact  sit  too 
much  for  general-purpose  fowls,  and  are  considered 
too  heavy  to  sit  on  eggs  of  light-weight  fowls. 
All  Asiatics  lay  buff-colored  eggs.  Some  of  them 
are  much  darker  than  others.  The  Brahmas  are 
"good  growers"  and  make  excellent  table  fowls. 
They  are  fairly  hardy  and  gain  rapidly  in  weight. 
The  meat  is  of  fair  quality,  but  does  not  equal 
that  of  the  Dorking  or  Game.  The  Dark  Brahmas 


Cochins  Described  51 

are  not  quite  so  popular  as  the  Light,  which  is  no 
doubt  due  to  the  superior  egg  production  of  the 
latter.  Brahmas  do  well  in  small  runs  or  yards. 
When  liberally  fed,  the  Brahmas  have  a  tendency 
to  become  too  fat  for  laying  and  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. Excessive  fatness  not  only  causes  fewer 
eggs,  but  a  larger  proportion  of  infertile  ones. 


FIG.  12.   Buff  Cochin  cock  (one-eighth  size). 
COCHINS 

The  Cochins  were  introduced  into  England  from 
China  about  1843,  when  the  ports  of  China  were 
opened  to  European  traders.  The  cock  is  a  pound 


52  Farm  Poultry 

lighter  than  the  Light  Brahma;  the  hens  have  the 
same  weight.  They  are  distinctively  table  fowls. 
The  hens  are  good  sitters,  easily  handled,  and  are 
slow  and  awkward  in  movement.  The  young  are 


Fia.  13.  Buff  Cochin  hen  (one-seventh  size). 

fairly  hardy  after  the  chickens  once  get  a  good 
start.  They  grow  fast  and  furnish  a  good  quantity 
of  meat,  but  not  of  the  best  quality.  They  are 
considered  indifferent  layers.  These  fowls  are  gentle 
and  tame,  very  peaceable,  seldom  quarrel  and  stand 
confinement  well.  They  do  well  where  others  would 
not  thrive  for  lack  of  exercise. 

The  Buff  Cochins  are  as  pure  buff  as  any  of 
the  buff  breeds.    This  variety  is  the  most  popular 


Lanqshans  Described  53 

of  the  Cochins.  The  fowls  have  an  abundance 
of  fluffy  feathers  which  enable  them  to  withstand 
severe  cold  weather.  Their  shanks  are  well  feathered 
on  the  outer  side.  The  middle  and  outer  toes  are 
also  feathered,  while  the  inner  toes  are  entirely 
naked.  They  have  small,  single,  upright  combs.  They 
are  much  admired  by  those  who  delight  in  large, 
gentle,  slow-moving  fowls. 

LANGSHANS 

Langshans  are  natives  of  Northern  China  and 
were  introduced  into  England  more  than  a  quarter 
of  a  century  ago.  They  have  not  been  bred  to  a 
great  extent  in  America  until  the  last  few  years. 
They  endure  severe  weather  well,  and  are  said 
to  be  good  winter  layers.  It  is  also  said  that  the 
tendency  to  incubate  is  not  so  great  as  in  the 
Cochins.  The  cock  should  weigh  9J^  and  the  hen 
7J/2  pounds.  The  Langshans  are  the  smallest  and 
most  active  of  the  Asiatics,  and  more  nearly  approach 
the  general-purpose  fowl  than  do  the  other  Orientals. 
They  have  white  skin  and  dark  shanks,  while  the 
others  have  yellow  skin  and  yellow  shanks.  The 
quality  of  the  flesh  is  considered  excellent,  being 
fine-grained  for  such  large  fowls.  They  are  better 
foragers  than  the  Cochins  and  Brahmas.  They  are 
somewhat  longer-legged  than  the  Brahmas  and 
Cochins,  and  consequently  appear  taller  in  proper- 


54 


Farm  Poultry 


tion  to  their  size.    Their  leg  feathering  is  less  than 
that  of  the  other  Asiatics. 

Langshans  are  steadily  gaining  in  popularity, 
although  they  will  probably  never  become  so  popu- 
lar as  the  general-purpose  breeds  unless  they  undergo 
a  marked  modification.  They  are  preferred  by 
some  because  they  are  more  active  than  either  the 
Brahmas  or  Cochins. 


FIG.  14.   Faverolle  cock  (one-eighth  size). 


FAVEROLLE 


This  is  a  class  of  cross-bred  fowls,  not  being  a 
distinct   breed,    but   serving   a   useful   purpose   as 


Faverolles  55 

meat  producers.  It  has  supplanted  the  Houdan 
and  other  French  breeds  in  some  parts  of  France, 
where  the  production  of  good-sized  young  birds 
for  the  Paris  market  is  the  chief  aim. 

The  Faverolles  were  produced  by  crossing  the 
following  breeds:    Cochin,  Brahma,  Dorking,  and 


FIG.  15.   Faverolle  hen  (one-sixth  size). 

Houdan.  They  are  bearded  and  sometimes  have 
a  crest,  frequently  have  five  toes,  and  show  white 
skin  and  light-colored  shanks.  The  shanks  are 
usually  feathered  unless  the  Dorking  blood  pre- 
dominates, in  which  case  they  are  frequently  bare. 
For  early  rearing  and  quick-growing  chickens  that 
produce  tender  and  juicy  flesh,  the  Faverolles 


56  Farm  Poultry 

are  highly  prized  where  they  are  best  known.  It 
is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  flesh  of  the  mature 
birds  is  somewhat  coarse  and  undesirable.  While 
these  fowls  may  become  a  well-established  breed 
and  may  be  highly  prized  for  the  fine  quality  of 
their  meat,  it  is  doubtful  if  they  ever  will  become 
popular  in  America  as  farm  fowls. 


CHAPTER  IV 

GENERAL-PURPOSE   FOWLS 

As  the  name  indicates,  the  general-purpose 
breeds  include  such  fowls  as  may  profitably  be 
kept  on  the  farm  for  the  production  of  both  meat 
and  eggs,  particularly  under  the  conditions  that 
require  natural  incubation.  They  are  adapted  to 
common  and  general  conditions.  It  should  not 
be  forgotten  that  the  term  "general-purpose"  is 
relative  and  is  not  intended  to  express  exact  con- 
ditions. It  is  impossible  to  make  definite  class- 
ifications of  the  various  breeds  of  fowls,  as  some 
breeds  in  the  hands  of  skilled  poultrymen  may 
prove  profitable,  while  in  the  hands  of  an  unskilled 
person  they  would  not  compare  favorably  with  many 
other  breeds  that  really  are  less  productive  when 
under  the  care  of  those  who  supply  the  necessary 
>  conditions  for  profitable  production.  Fowls  of  all 
breeds  and  varieties  lay  eggs,  and  the  flesh  of 
all  fowls  furnishes  good  and  wholesome  food,  yet 
not  all  breeds  are  equally  desirable  for  these 
purposes. 

Farmers,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  somewhat 
isolated,  require  fowls  that  are  noted  for  utility 

(57) 


58  Farm  Poultry 

along  more  than  one  line  of  production.  They 
look  not  only  for  a  fairly  good  egg  production,  but 
also  for  a  body  of  considerable  size  that  will  fur- 
nish a  good  quantity  of  meat  of  first-class  quality 
for  table  use.  Both  eggs  and  meat  are  of  the  high- 
est importance  for  the  practical  farmer,  for  upon 
his  poultry  he  depends  to  a  greater  extent  than 
he  himself  is  aware.  The  quality  of  the  meat,  as 
well  as  its  quantity,  is  to  be  considered.  Not  only 
does  the  farmer  demand  meat  when  the  fowls  are 
mature,  but  the  meat  of  fowls  of  all  ages  after  the 
young  reach  the  broiler  stage  must  be  of  good 
quality.  It  is  vitally  important,  also,  that  the  fowls 
produce  the  greatest  quantity  and  best  quality  of 
meat  from  the  food  consumed;  for  some  fowls  eat 
much  and  produce  relatively  little.  Good  layers 
also  are  required,  especially  during  the  winter 
months.  Steady  winter  layers  are  demanded  by 
the  farmer  quite  as  much  as  by  the  poultryman 
whose  business  it  is  to  produce  eggs  for  the  market. 
Most  farmers  do  not  expect  to  consume  all  the 
product  of  the  poultry-yard  at  home.  If  eggs  are 
produced  in  good  numbers  during  the  cold  weather, 
a  high  price  is  usually  realized  for  them.  A  greater 
price  is  realized  from  winter  eggs  than  from  those 
produced  during  the  spring  and  summer  months 
when  fowls  lay  most  abundantly.  It  is  also  desired 
that  the  farm  hen  should  become  " broody/7  incubate 
and  prove  a  good  mother  for  her  young.  Many 


Characteristics  of  General-purpose  Fowls  59 

farmers  do  not  feel  that  they  can  afford  to  be  bur- 
dened with  the  extra  care  and  study  which  the 
successful  operation  of  the  modern  incubator  would 
incur.  They  therefore  depend  upon  the  natural 
instincts  of  the  fowls  to  provide  incubators  and 
brooders.  Some  of  the  more  noted  characteristics 
of  the  general-purpose  fowls  are  discussed  in  the 
following  paragraphs. 

Size. — These  fowls  are  usually  of  medium  size; 
that  is,  they  rarely  represent  either  extreme,  although 
the  largest  breed — the  Light  Brahmas — may,  under 
exceptionally  favorable  conditions,  prove  to  be 
fairly  good  farm  fowls.  The  general-purpose  fowls, 
as  a  rule,  have  blocky,  compact  bodies,  which  is 
one  of  the  requisites  for  meat  production.  They 
are  rarely  long-legged.  They  are  most  economical 
feeders;  that  is,  they  make  a  good  growth  for  the 
food  consumed. 

Disposition. — Gentleness  is  one  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  these  breeds.  The  fowls  are  not  easily 
frightened,  and  are  more  easily  confined  than  the 
breeds  which  are  noted  for  egg  production  alone. 
They  rarely  attempt  to  use  their  wings  in  order 
to  escape  from  inclosures  of  medium  height.  While 
they  may  become  wild  and  easily  frightened  by 
improper  management,  yet  with  proper  care  they 
become  quite  as  docile  and  tame  as  is  consistent 
with  ease  of  management  and  profit.  They  occupy 
a  medium  position  between  the  Mediterraneans 


60  Farm  Poultry 

and  the  Asiatics  as  regards  size,  egg  production, 
and  docility. 

Early  maturity. — These  fowls  are  hardy,  grow 
quickly  and  pass  through  the  delicate  stages  of 
early  life  rapidly.  They  closely  resemble  the  most 
hardy  of  the  noted  egg  breeds  in  this  respect.  They 
are  considered  to  be  hardy  at  all  stages,  which  is  an 
important  point  for,  farm  poultry.  The  many  cares 
of  busy  farm  life  during  the  growing  seasons  of  the 
year  sometimes  prevent  giving  the  fowls  the  close 
attention  which  the  more  delicate  breeds  require  in 
order  that  they  may  be  brought  safely  to  a  stronger 
stage  of  development.  Hardiness  at  all  stages  of 
development  is,  therefore,  an  important  character- 
istic of  farm  poultry.  Early  maturity  produces 
early-laying  pullets.  The  so-called  general-purpose 
breeds  mature  early  and  frequently  produce  pullets 
that  will  lay  at  five  months  of  age.  Early-hatched 
pullets,  as  a  rule,  will  lay  at  an  earlier  age  than 
those  hatched  later  in  the  season.  The  early-hatched 
fowls  generally  grow  most  rapidly  and  reach  matu- 
rity in  the  shortest  time.  Early-hatched  fowls  are 
usually  preferred  for  breeding  as  well  as  for  utility. 

Good  sitters  and  good  brooders. — While  these 
fowls  are  not  so  persistent  sitters  as  the  Asiatics, 
yet  they  may  be  depended  upon  for  natural  incu- 
bation, particularly  if  the  hens  are  kept  until  they 
are  two  or  three  years  old.  They  make  excel- 
lent mothers,  as  they  care  for  their  young  excel- 


Useful  Qualities  61 

lently  and  have  a  great  abundance  of  fluffy  feath- 
ers, which  enable  them  to  do  their  brooding  well. 
They  are  probably  somewhat  better  sitters  and 
brooders  than  the  extremely  heavy  fowls.  Fewer 
eggs  are  likely  to  be  broken  by  these  careful  birds 
than  by  the  larger  and  more  clumsy  kind. 

Good  foragers. — These  fowls  are  good  foragers, 
considering  their  size.  While  they  are  not  inclined 
to  roam  so  far  as  some  of  the  lighter  and  more 
active  breeds,  yet  they  are  well  calculated  to  seek 
their  own  living  when  an  opportunity  is  afforded 
them.  The  young  fowls  will  roam  a  considerable 
distance  for  insects  and  green  food,  and  in  this 
respect  they  occupy  a  medium  position  between 
the  active,  nervous  breeds  and  the  heavy  Asiatics, 
approaching  more  nearly  the  former  than  the  latter. 

Endure  cold  weather  well. — The  compact  body 
and  medium-sized  combs  and  wattles  enable  the 
general-pupose  fowls  to  withstand  the  severe  weather 
of  the  winters.  While  a  frosted  comb  may  occasion- 
ally result,  yet  they  are  not  nearly  so  liable  to 
injury  by  freezing  as  are  the  more  noted  egg  breeds. 
They  have  a  somewhat  thicker  coat  of  feathers  and 
more  fluff  than  the  Mediterraneans.  The  thick 
coat  of  feathers  gives  them  a  much  better  protection 
than  a  thin  one,  for  the  reason  that  the  air  space 
inclosed  by  a  thick  coat  is  considerably  greater 
than  that  inclosed  by  a  thin  one.  While  they  do  not 
equal  the  Asiatics  in  this  respect,  yet  they  are  sum- 


62  Farm  Poultry 

ciently  protected  to  withstand  the  rigors  of  the 
northern  winters. 


PLYMOUTH   ROCKS 

For  half  a  century  these  fowls  have  been  steadily 
gaining  in  favor  until  they  now  occupy  the  highest 
position  as  to  popularity.  Probably  no  other  breed 
has  ever  been  so  widely  distributed  and  so  numer- 
ously bred  under  such  varying  conditions  as  the 
Plymouth  Rocks.  They  seem  to  have  remarkable 
powers  of  adapting  themselves  to  the  conditions 
under  which  they  are  placed. 

It  has  been  said  of  them  by  an  eminent  poultry 
authority  that  "  Where  any  fowl  will  thrive  this 
breed  will  do  well.'7  The  fact  that  these  fowls  are 
so  numerously  bred  on  the  farms  of  this  country, 
where  usefulness  is  the  important  consideration, 
is  perhaps  the  highest  testimonial  that  any  breed 
of  fowls  can  have. 

There  has  been,  and  still  continues,  an  effort 
on  the  part  of  poultry  fanciers  to  create  a  large 
number  of  varieties.  This  breed,  like  many  others, 
shows  the  result  of  this  work.  While  the  older  va- 
rieties are  not  necessarily  injured  through  the  for- 
mation of  new  ones,  yet  one  must  lament  the  fact 
that  so  much  effort  has  been  bestowed  on  a  useful 
breed  to  simply  please  the  eye,  without  any  marked 
improvement  along  the  lines  for  which  these  fowls 


Plymouth  Rocks  63 

are  maintained.  The  fact  that  comparatively 
easy  tasks  are  more  likely  to  be  accomplished  than 
are  very  difficult  ones  may  possibly  explain  why 
the  easier  task  of  creating  a  new  variety  has  become 
more  popular  than  the  more  difficult  one  of  improv- 
ing the  useful  qualities  of  a  well-established  breed. 
The  recognized  varieties  of  this  breed  are  the 
following: 

Barred  Silver-penciled 

White  Partridge 

Buff  Columbian 

All  varieties  have  the  same  weight — cock  9J/£, 
hen  7J^,  cockerel  8,  and  pullet  6  pounds. 

BARRED   PLYMOUTH  ROCKS 

This  variety  probably  originated  in  Massa- 
chusetts about  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
It  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  cross  of  a  Domi- 
nique cock  and  a  Black  Java  hen.  The  Barred 
Plymouth  Rocks  combine  largely  the  qualities  of 
both  these  breeds.  They  more  nearly  approach 
the  Java  in  size,  but  retain  many  of  the  good  qual- 
ities of  the  Dominique.  While  they  do  not  have 
the  color  of  either  parent,  yet  they  more  nearly 
approach  that  of  the  Dominique.  These  fowls 
approach  the  Asiatics  in  size,  the  Leghorns  in  egg 
production,  and  constitute  one  of  the  most  useful 
varieties.  They  also  produce  flesh  of  an  excellent 


64 


Farm  Poultry 


quality.  It  is  maintained  by  some  breeders  of  Ply- 
mouth Rocks  that  the  quality  of  the  flesh  approaches 
that  of  the  Dorking.  They  are  blocky  fowls,  have  large, 
full,  plump,  well-proportioned  bodies,  yellow  shanks 
and  skin.  The  flesh  is  of  good  texture  and  flavor. 
They  are  early  maturing,  considering  their  size, 


FIG.  16.   Barred  Plymouth  Rock  cockerel. 

are  good  layers,  hardy  both  as  little  chicks  and 
mature  fowls.  They  are  excellent  mothers,  kind 
and  persistent  sitters.  The  laying  capacity  is  con- 
siderably above  the  average  of  fowls.  Authentic 
records  are  reported  of  more  than  two  hundred  and 
thirty  eggs  per  year  from  single  birds.  The  pullets 


Plymouth  Rocks  Popular  65 

make  excellent  winter  layers,  but  for  greatest  egg 
production  in  the  wintertime  fowls  should  not  be 
kept  longer  than  two  years.  They  are  easily  kept 
in  confinement  and  are  adapted  to  nearly  all  cli- 
mates. Probably  no  breed  better  combines  these 
two  qualities — egg  production  and  the  yielding 
of  a  large  amount  of  good  meat  for  the  table.  This 


FIG.  17.   Barred  Plymouth  Rock  hen  (one-seventh  size). 

variety,  more  than  any  other,  has  won  for  this  breed 
its  remarkable  popularity. 

WHITE    PLYMOUTH   ROCKS 

In  a  general  way,  what  has  been  said  of  the 
Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  will  apply  to  all  varieties 
of  this  breed,  although  the  newer  varieties  are  not 


66  Farm  Poultry 

quite  so  well  fixed  in  their  distinguishing  characters 
as  the  Barred.  It  is  asserted  that  the  White  Ply- 
mouth Rocks  originated  as  an  off-shoot  from  the 
Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  early  in  the  history  of 
the  latter.*  The  Plymouth  Rock  form  predominates 
in  all  varieties,  and  the  solid  colors  have  the  advan- 
tage of  the  Barred  in  mating,  as  often,  with  the 
Barred,  the  best  formed  fowl  will  be  objectionable 
on  account  of  some  imperfection  in  color,  so  that 
it  must  be  discarded  from  the  breeding-pen  if  charac- 
teristic colors  are  desired. 

The  White  variety  is  preferred  by  poultrymen 
who  rear  young  fowls  for  market.  White  fowls 
present  a  better  appearance  when  dressed  than 
colored  ones  do,  particularly  if  the  fowls  are  not 
in  the  most  perfect  condition.  Immature  fowls 
of  all  breeds  and  varieties  have  more  or  less  unde- 
veloped feathers,  the  removal  of  which,  in  colored 
varieties,  leaves  a  discoloration  beneath  the  skin. 
On  this  account,  young  birds  of  a  white  variety 
that  are  dressed  for  the  market  present  a  better 
appearance  than  equally  good  birds  of  a  colored 
variety.  As  long  as  attractive  appearance  is  a  desired 
quality  in  dressed  fowls,  white  varieties  will  be 
preferred. 

BUFF   PLYMOUTH   HOCKS 

The  Buff  variety  of  this  breed  is  of  more  recent 
origin  than  those  already  described.  It,  however,  came 

*"Barred  and  White  Plymouth  Rocks,"  by  Wallace. 


Plymouth  Rock   Varieties 


67 


at  once  into  favor  with  a  large  number  of  poultry- 
men  who  may  be  regarded,  to  some  extent  at  least, 
as  poultry  fanciers,  and  also  with  others  who  have 
a  decided  liking  for  fowls  of  this  color.  The  advocates 


FIG.  18.   Buff  Plymouth  Rock  cockerel  (one-seventh  size). 

of  this  variety  maintain  that  the  useful  qualities 
measure  favorably  with  the  older  and  better  known 
varieties. 


OTHER   VARIETIES 


These  are  of  still  more  recent  origin,  and  as  yet 
have  not  been  given  an  opportunity  to  prove  their 


68  Farm  Poultry 

value  under  the  great  variety  of  conditions  as 
have  those  of  the  Barred  variety  that  won  for  the 
Plymouth  Rocks  their  -remarkable  reputation. 

Each  of  the  varieties  has  medium-sized  single 
combs.  In  size,  the  combs  and  wattles  occupy 
a  medium  position  between  the  Cochins  and  the 
Mediterraneans.  The  eggs  of  each  variety  are 
buff  in  color,  but  vary  considerably  in  shade. 

WYANDOTTES 

The  Wyandottes  are  not  so  old  as  the  Plymouth 
Rocks.  When  first  introduced,  they  came  at  once 
into  popular  favor,  and  are  now  crowding  the  Ply- 
mouth Rocks  for  supremacy  as  the  most  popular 
general-purpose  fowl.  They  are  purely  of  American 
Origin.  They  were  recognized  as  a  distinct  breed 
by  the  American  Poultry  Association  in  1883,  and 
at  that  time  were  given  a  new  name,  which  they 
now  bear. 

Previous  to  that  time  they  were  known  and  sold 
as  American  Sebrights,  Excelsiors,  Ambrights,  etc. 
They  are  a  little  smaller  than  the  Plymouth  Rocks, 
the  cock  weighing  8J^,  hen  6^,  cockerel  7J^,  pullet 
5^/2  pounds.  They  have  yellow  skin  and  shanks, 
with  the  exception  of  the  black  variety,  which  has 
black  shanks  shading  into  yellow,  and  the  bottom 
of  the  feet  are  yellow.  As  producers  of  broilers  to 
weigh  two  pounds  apiece  they  are  highly  esteemed. 


Wyandottes  69 

The  hens  are  excellent  sitters  and  make  good  mothers. 
In  this  respect  they  closely  resemble  the  Plymouth 
Rocks.  The  Wyandottes  have  a  neat  and  trim 
appearance,  are  good  sized,  produce  excellent  flesh, 
and  have  a  gentle  disposition.  They  are  generally 
called  handsome  fowls.  In  appearance,  they  are 


•* 


v^    1 
Fia.  19.   A  pair  of  White  Wyandottes,  young  (one-eighth  size). 

somewhat  neater  than  the  Plymouth  Rocks.  In  ful- 
filling the  demands  of  the  farmer  for  the  econom- 
ical production  of  both  eggs  and  meat  the  Wyan- 
dottes are  not  wanting.  Joseph  Wallace  says, 
"It  should  not  be  claimed  that  the  Wyandottes, 
in  quality  and  quantity  of  breast  meat,  equal  the 
Dorking,  Houdan  or  Game."  Neither  do  they 
equal  the  Leghorns  or  the  Minorcas  in  egg  produc- 


70  Farm  Poultry 

tion,  yet  they  are  excellent  general-purpose  fowls. 
They  are  called  good  layers  and  bear  confinement 
well.  They  are  hardy,  both  as  mature  fowls  and 
when  young.  They  have  a  low  rose  comb,  which 
makes  them  well  suited  to  a  cold  country.  They 
are  well  feathered  and  attractive  in  appearance. 

The  object  of  the  originators  of  this  breed  was 
to  obtain  a  compact,  blocky,  clean-legged  fowl 
of  good  size,  one  particularly  deep  in  the  breast, 
that  should  produce  a  good  number  of  eggs.  The 
results  fully  meet  these  various  requirements.  The 
flesh  is  of  a  superior  quality,  being  tender  and  juicy. 
The  proportion  of  bone  to  the  total  weight  of  dressed 
fowl  is  comparatively  small.  In  general  outline  as 
compared  to  the  Plymouth  Rocks  they  are  smoother 
and  more  compact,  they  have  shorter  backs  and 
have  deep  round  bodies.  They  are  often  spoken 
of  as  the  fowl  of  curves.  Their  low  and  close-fitting 
comb  that  conforms  pretty  well  to  the  outline  of 
the  skull  adds  even  more  to  their  smooth  and  rounded 
appearance. 

There  are  eight  recognized  varieties  of  this  breed: 

Silver  Buff  Partridge 

Golden  Black  Silver-penciled 

White  Columbian 

ORPINGTONS 

This  breed  is  said  to  have  originated  in  the 
hands  of  William  Cook,  of  Orpington,  England; 


Orpingtons 


71 


hence  the  name.  They  have  come  into  popular  favor 
both  in  England  and  America.  They  are  said  to 
be  the  most  popular  fowls  in  England.  Since  their 
introduction  here  many  breeders  have  become  very 
enthusiastic  over  them.  It  is  significant  that  those 
who  are  loudest  in  their  praise  are  those  who 
have  bred  them  longest  and  understand  them 
besti  The  Orpingtons  are  particularly  prized  by 


FIG.  20.    Buff  Orpingtons. 

those  who  desire  a  white-skinned  fowl  for  table 
use.  This  feature  has,  without  doubt,  aided  mate- 
rially in  making  them  popular  in  England,  where 
the  white  skin  is  prized,  as  the  yellow  skin  is  prized 
in  this  country.  There  is,  however,  an  increasing 
appreciation  of  white-skinned  fowls  in  America. 
The  idea  that  yellow  color  indicates  greater  richness 
is  becoming  less  general,  particularly  with  those 
who  are  most  fastidious  in  their  tastes, 


72  Farm  Poultry 

There  are  ten  or  more  varieties  of  this  breed 
recognized  in  England  but  only  three  have  been 
recognized  by  the  American  Poultry  Association,— 
the  White,  Buff,  and  Black,  all  solid  colors.  It  is 
claimed  that  no  one  variety  is  superior  to  the  others 
as  to  usefulness.  Breeders  claim  that  Orpingtons 
are  profitable  egg  producers.  The  cock  should 
weigh  10,  and  the  hen  8  pounds.  They  are  particu- 
larly prized  for  quantity  and  quality  of  their  flesh. 

The^  White  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  any  of 
the  varieties.  They  are  easier  to  breed  to  feather, 
being  pure  white  throughout.  However,  each  va- 
riety has  many  ardent  admirers.  All  varieties  are, 
without  doubt,  most  useful  farm  fowls. 

JAVA 

Javas  are  one  of  the  valuable,  useful  breeds 
of  this  country.  They  are  said  to  have  originated 
in  Missouri  near  the  middle  of  the  last  century, 
about  the  time  the  Plymouth  Rocks  originated,  per- 
haps a  little  earlier.  It  is  asserted  that  they  have 
been  bred  pure  longer  than  any  of  the  recently 
formed  breeds.  Javas  are  noted  for  their  good  size, 
being  the  same  size  as  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  and 
are  quick  maturing.  They  are  of  two  varieties,, 
the  Black  and  the  Mottled.  It  is  said  that,  when 
cooked,  the  meat  of  the  Black  variety  does  not  pre- 
sent the  objectionable  dark  color  of  some  other  black 


Dominiques  73 

breeds.  They  are  good  layers,  perfectly  hardy,  and 
are  easily  reared,  endure  confinement  well,  and  are 
easily  kept  in  inclosures.  It  is  said  that  the  fowls 
breed  quite  as  true  as  any  of  the  breeds  of  this  class. 
They  are  good  winter  layers,  and  the  chicks  make 
good  broilers  at  an  early  age.  They  are  not  raised 
so  extensively  as  some  other  breeds  of  this  class. 
They  are  becoming  more  popular,  yet  in  this  respect 
are  still  far  behind  the  Plymouth  Rocks  and  the 
Wyandottes.  The  Black  variety  has  been  the  most 
popular.  This  variety  is  rich  black  throughout, 
with  a  metallic  luster.  They  have  single  combs, 
their  shanks  and  toes  are  free  from  feathers  but  are 
nearly  black  in  color.  The  Javas  may  be  recom- 
mended as  useful  farm  fowls.  The  cock  should  weigh 
9J/2  and  the  hen  7%  pounds. 

DOMINIQUE 

Dominiques  are  smaller  than  the  Wyandottes, 
and  are  compact  and  hardy.  This  is  one  of  the 
oldest  American  breeds.  The  origin  is  obscure. 
The  general  color  is  a  grayish  white,  with  yellow 
shanks,  somewhat  like  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  yet 
the  fowls  are  lighter  in  color.  For  a  time  they  were 
unpopular,  but  are  now  receiving  attention  and  are 
apparently  coming  into  favor.  They  endure  con- 
finement well.  It  is  said  of  them  that  they  change 
little  by  in-and-in-breeding.  It  is  also  asserted 


74  Farm  Poultry 

that  they  suffer  comparatively  little  from  unclean- 
liness.  They  have  rose-combs,  and  endure  cold 
weather  well.  They  are  excellent  table  fowls,  good 
mothers,  good  foragers,  mature  early,  and  are  a 
most  useful  farm  breed.  There  is  but  one  recog- 
nized variety,  the  Rose-comb.  The  cock  should 
weigh  7,  and  the  hen  5  pounds 

DORKING 

? 

The  Dorking  is  preeminently  an  English  breed. 
The  fowls  approach  the  ideal  for  general  purposes. 


FIG.  21.   Colored  Dorking  hen,  English  (one-eighth  size). 

They  are  fairly  hardy  if  kept  dry,  although  some- 
what delicate  if  subjected  to  dampness,  particu- 
larly in  cold  weather.  This  is,  without  doubt,  one 


Dorkings  75 

of  the  oldest  of  domesticated  breeds.  It  is  said 
by  some  authorities  that  the  fowls  were  taken  to 
England  by  the  Romans.  They  are  low,  heavy- 
bodied  fowls,  with  single  combs.  A  distinguishing 


FIG.  22.    Flock  of  Dorkings,  Acle,  England. 

mark  of  the  Dorking  is  the  fifth  toe.  They  are  good 
layers,  persistent  and  careful  sitters  and  good 
mothers.  They  are  excellent  farm  fowls,  especially 
prized  for  the  table.  Their  flesh  is  light-colored 


76  Farm  Poultry 

and  of  fine  texture.  Some  even  hold  that  the  flesh 
of  the  Dorking  is  superior  to  that  of  the  Game. 
American  breeders  prize  the  Dorkings  highly  for 
quality  of  flesh,  and  also  for  the  small  proportion 
of  bone.  They  are  especially  noted  for  a  broad, 
deep  breast,  and  the  breast  meat  is  distinctly  fine  in 
quality.  They  fatten  easily,  and  stand  confinement 
fairly  well,  although  a  wide  range  in  dry  weather  suits 
them  best.  It  is  said  that  the  hens  remain  longer 
with  the  chickens  than  do  the  hens  of  most  breeds. 

The  fifth  toe  is  objected  to  by  some  breeders. 
It  is  at  least  a  superfluous  organ  so  far  as  useful- 
ness is  concerned.  It  is,  however,  one  of  the  promi- 
nent characteristics  of  the  Dorking.  Some  Eng- 
lish writers,  notably  Wright,  assert  that  those 
varieties  of  fowls  which  have  five  toes  are  more 
afflicted  with  bruised  feet — "Bumblefoot" — than 
are  other  varieties. 

HOUDAN 

The  Houdan  is  without  doubt  the  most  popular 
of  French  varieties  that  are  bred  in  the  United 
States.  The  other  French  breeds  are  the  Creve- 
coeur,  and  the  La  Fleche.  The  Houdans  rank 
among  the  useful  fowls  and  are  noted  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  goodly  number  of  eggs,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  furnish  a  moderate  quantity  of  fine 
flesh.  The  cock  should  weigh  7J/£  and  the  hen  6J/2 
pounds.  Wright  says  of  them:  "Better  table  fowls 


Cornish  Games 


77 


are  none,  the  laying  powers  are  great,  the  chickens 
fledge  and  grow  faster  than  almost  any  breed,  and 
the  eggs  are  invariably  prolific." 

The  Houdans  are  crested,  bearded,  and  have 
the  characteristic  fifth  toe.  Notwithstanding  these 
objectionable  characteristics,  they  are  reared  to 
some  extent  for  their  useful  qualities,  but  are  not 
nearly  so  popular  as  the  Plymouth  Rocks  and 
Wyandottes. 


FIG.  23.   Dark  Cornish  Game  cock  (one-ninth  size). 
CORNISH    GAME 

These  are  hardy  and  most  excellent  table  fowls. 
They  are  considered  profitable  general-purpose  fowls; 


78  Farm  Poultry 

are  fairly  good  layers,  mature  rapidly  and  are 
unexcelled  for  quality  of  flesh.  The  hens  are  good 
sitters  and  excellent  mothers.  All  Games  are  close- 
feathered  and  muscular,  which  gives  them  a  firm 
and  compact  feeling  to  the  touch.  They  weigh 


FIG.  24.   Dark  Cornish  Game  hen  (one-:ixth  size). 

very  heavily  for  their  apparent  size.  The  thighs 
of  games  are  well  developed  and  appear  prominent. 
The  Cornish  Games  are  represented  by  three 
varieties,  the  Dark,  White,  and  White-laced  Red. 
The  Dark  and  the  White  are  best  known  and  are 
most  highly  prized  as  useful  fowls.  They  should 
weigh,  cock  9  and  the  hen  7  pounds.  The  White- 


Rhode   Island  Reds  79 

laced  Red  is  a  pound  lighter.  For  general  farm  use 
they  are  not  so  desirable  as  most  of  the  other  breeds 
discussed  in  this  class. 

They  are  considerably  more  pugnacious  than 
the  other  breeds  mentioned  in  this  chapter  and 
in  certain  localities  are  highly  prized  on  this  account. 
It  is  said  that  they  suffer  less  from  attacks  of  hawks 
than  most  other  breeds. 

The  Games  of  this  class  are  sometimes  used  to 
cross  on  other  fowls  for  the  purpose  of  infusing 
vigor  and  of  improving  the  quality  of  the  flesh. 

RHODE   ISLAND   REDS 

These  fowls  are  of  American  origin  and  are 
generally  recognized  as  a  new  breed,  although 
they  have  been  bred  in  Rhode  Island  for  many 
years.  They  are  there  bred  numerously  and  are 
recognized  as  practical,  useful  fowls  that  are  well 
adapted  to  the  conditions  under  which  farm  fowls 
are  usually  kept.  The  American  Poultry  Associ- 
ation recognizes  two  varieties,  the  Single-  and 
the  Rose-comb.  The  cock  weighs  8^  and  the  hen 
6J/2  pounds,  the  same  weight  as  the  Wyandottes. 

This  breed  has*  undoubtedly  been  developed  by 
men  who  thoroughly  appreciate  utility,  and  they 
claim  for  these  fowls  all  the  essentials  of  a  general- 
purpose  fowl.  Some  remarkable  egg  records  have 
been  made,  yet  it  has  not  been  shown  that  they 


80 


Farm  Poultry 


have  the  remarkable  powers  of  adaptability  accred- 
ited the  Plymouth  Rocks. 

Breeders  assert  that  they  mature  earlier  than 
the  Plymouth  Rocks  and  in  a  general  way  occupy 
a  position  between  these  fowls  and  the  Leghorns. 
It  is  claimed  that  they  yield  from  the  live  weight  a 
large  proportion  of  dressed  meat.  The  color  of 
these  fowls  is  designated  as  red  and  should  be 
rich  anc}  brilliant;  a  little  black  is  desired  in  some 
places,  notably  the  tail.  A  lustrous  red,  which  is 
quite  distinct  from  the  buff  of  other  breeds,  is 
characteristic  of  these  fowls.  Where  they  are  well 
known  they  are  highly  prized  as  farm  fowls. 


FIG.  25.   Rhode  Island  Reds. 


CHAPTER  V 

FANCY  BREEDS 

WHILE  the  breeds  discussed  in  this  arbitrary 
class  are  more  or  less  useful,  yet  they  are  less  adapt- 
able as  farm  fowls  than  those  mentioned  as  egg  or 
general-purpose  breeds.  Fowls  of  these  breeds  will 
undoubtedly  lay  a  good  number  of  eggs  under 
favorable  circumstances,  and  will  produce  flesh  that 
is  excellent  for  food,  yet  they  are  all  less  important 
for  the  furnishing  of  the  useful  products  than  are  the 
varieties  mentioned  in  previous  chapters.  This 
class  of  fancy  breeds  includes  great  variety  as  to 
size,  form  and  color.  Some  of  the  breeds,  in  the 
hands  of  skilful  poultrymen,  would  prove  quite 
satisfactory  as  general-purpose  fowls,  yet,  in  the 
hands  of  the  farmer,  under  ordinary  farm  conditions, 
they  are  of  minor  value. 

Nearly  all  kinds  of  fowls  may  be  greatly  improved 
by  skilful  breeding  and  management,  and  undoubt- 
edly these  so-called  fancy  breeds  could  be  improved 
as  to  useful  qualities  if  given  food  and  management 
conducive  to  that  end.  If  one  desires  to  attempt 
improvement  for  useful  purposes  it  will  be  best  to 
select  fowls  of  one  of  the  more  useful  breeds,  as  the 

F  (81) 


82  Farm  Poultry 

stock  on  which  to  work.  There  are  so  many  useful 
breeds,  that,  beyond  doubt,  are  susceptible  of  still 
further  improvement  that  it  would  seem  injudicious 
to  start  with  some  of  the  least  useful.  The  same 
skill  and  care  transferred  to  other  breeds  will  give 
much  greater  returns  in  useful  products  than  can  be 
secured  from  these  breeds  whose  energies  have 
been  expended  in  developing  a  variety  of  charac- 
teristics that  are  highly  prized  for  exhibition 
purp6ses  but  have  little  value  toward  the  pro- 
duction of  eggs  and  meat. 

POLISH 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  name  Polish, 
or  Poland,  has  no  connection  with  the  country  of 
that  name.  Charles  Darwin  says  that  probably  the 
name  was  given  on  account  of  their  elevated  crest 
or  poll  just  back  of  the  nostrils  on  the  top  of  the 
head,  where  there  is  an  elevation  in  the  bony  struc- 
ture. These  fowls  have  been  bred  for  many  years. 
It  is  said  that  they  have  a  known  history  extending 
as  far  back  as  the  sixteenth  century.  They  were 
introduced  into  England  about  1835.  They  are  gen- 
erally considered  handsome  fowls,  but  are  not  noted 
for  hardiness.  They  certainly  cannot  hold  their  own 
in  a  promiscuous  flock.  When  bred  in  small  flocks 
and  given  extra  care  they  are  said  to  pay  very  well. 
They  are  only  fair  layers  of  small  white  eggs.  They 


Polish  Fowls  83 

cannot  withstand  wet  weather  well,  and  require 
extra  care  in  time  of  snow  or  rain. 

The  very  large  crests,  which  obstruct  their  sight 
to  some  extent,  make  them  a  somewhat  easy  prey  to 
hawks  in  localities  where  these  enemies  are  numerous. 
In  stormy  weather  the  crests  are  liable  to  become  wet 
and  to  cause  inconvenience  to  the  fowls,  as  well  as  to 
make  them  more  liable  to  take  cold.  On  account  of 
their  delicacy,  small  size,  and  moderate  egg  pro- 
duction, they  are  designated  a  fancy  breed. 

They  endure  confinement  quite  well  if  kept  in  dry 
and  clean  houses  and  yards.  Their  flesh  is  esteemed 
for  its  fine  quality.  If  one  desires  a  few  handsome 
fowls,  and  is  willing  to  give  them  extra  care,  they 
will  probably  prove  satisfactory,  but  they  are  not 
practical  for  the  poultry-keeper  who  desires  to 
realize  the  largest  profit  from  the  production  of  eggs 
or  meat. 

Both  sexes  have  large  and  handsome  crests.  The 
comb  of  Polish  fowls  is  peculiar  in  form  and  differs 
materially  from  the  combs  of  the  breeds  previously 
described.  It  is  V-shaped  or  branched  in  form,  and 
is  often  nearly,  or  quite,  hidden  by  the  crest. 

The  American  Poultry  Association  recognizes 
eight  varieties  of  Polish  fowls,  namely: 

Bearded  Golden  Non-bearded  Golden 

Bearded  Silver  Non-bearded  Silver 

Bearded  White  Non-bearded  White 

Buff-laced  White-crested  Black 


84  Farm  Poultry 

The  shanks  of  all  varieties  are  of  a  slate  or  bluish 
color  and  the  skin  is  white.  Probably  the  Silver, 
Golden,  and  White-crested  Black  are  the  most 
popular  varieties. 

GAME 

The  varieties  of  Games  are  especially  noted  for 
the  production  of  flesh  of  fine  quality.  Some  varieties 
are  sometimes  recommended  as  farm  fowls,  but  on 
account  of  their  pugnacious  disposition  and  their 
deficiency  in  egg  production  it  is  extremely  doubtful 
whether  they  will  prove  as  useful  as  the  breeds  dis- 
cussed under  the  head  of  general-purpose  fowls 
(Chapter  IV). 

They  are  among  the  most  popular  of  exhibition 
or  fancy  fowls.  The  classes  of  these  fowls  are  usually 
well  filled  at  the  large  poultry  shows  and  fairs.  They 
are  called  good  sitters  and  good  mothers,  traits  which, 
in  general,  are  common  to  all  Games.  There  are 
eight  recognized  varieties  of  the  Exhibition  Games, 
and  of  these  the  Black-breasted  Red  and  the  Brown- 
Red  are  probably  the  most  popular. 

SILKY 

The  Silkies  are  not  bred  to  any  extent  in  this 
country,  although  in  England  they  are  in  consider- 
able favor.  Their  great  peculiarity  is  that  their 
feathers  are  not  webbed,  and  when  in  good  condition 


Silkies,  Sultans  and  Frizzles  85 

present  a  fluffy,  loose  appearance.  Standing  well 
out  from  the  body  in  all  directions,  the  plumage 
causes  them  to  appear  much  heavier  than  they 
really  are.  They  are  compactly  built  birds,  and  are 
reared  chiefly  for  their  odd  appearance,  and  for 
hatching  the  eggs  of  other  breeds.  They  are  said 
to  make  good  mothers  for  tender  little  chickens  on 
account  of  their  light  weight  and  soft,  downy  feathers. 
They  have  irregular  rose  combs  of  a  dark  color.  The 
comb  and  face  present  a  dark,  purplish  appearance, 
in  marked  contrast  to  other  varieties  of  fowls. 

SULTAN 

Sultans  were  taken  into  England  from  Turkey 
about  1850.  They  were  not  brought  to  America 
until  many  years  later.  On  account  of  their  crest 
they  somewhat  resemble  the  Polish,  particularly  the 
Bearded  Polish.  Their  shanks  and  toes  are  heavily 
feathered.  They  are  reared  chiefly  for  their  peculiar 
appearance.  No  particular  claim  is  made  as  to  use- 
fulness. They  thrive  well  in  small  inclosures,  and  are 
gentle  and  readily  become  pets. 

FRIZZLE 

Frizzles  are  peculiar  fowls,  and  are  reared  wholly 
for  their  unique  appearance,  their  feathers  curving 
upward  and  backward  at  the  ends.  The  curve  is 


86  Farm  Poultry 

most  pronounced  in  the  hackle  feathers  and  feathers 
of  the  back.  Any  color  is  recognized.  Single  combs 
are  preferred.  The  chief  requisite  of  Frizzles  is  that 
the  feathers  turn  upward  and  toward  the  head.  On 
account  of  this  peculiarity  of  the  feathers,  they 
do  not  well  withstand  unfavorable  weather.  They 
should  not  be  classed  among  the  most  useful  breeds. 
They  are  not  bred  extensively.  Without  doubt 
they  might  be  made  more  useful  than  they  now  are 
should  skilful  breeders  give  them  some  attention. 
However,  the  fact  that  they  are  not  prepared  to 
withstand  the  hardships  that  more  useful  breeds 
endure  will  tend  to  prevent  them  from  becoming 
other  than  fancy  fowls. 

BANTAM 

The  Bantams  are  purely  fancy  or  ornamental 
breeds.  There  are  many  varieties.  While  some 
breeders  maintain  that  they  can  be  profitably  kept 
for  eggs  and  for  the  table,  yet  on  account  of  their 
diminutive  size  they  cannot  compete  with  the  larger 
breeds.  As  ponies  represent  the  children's  horse 
and  are  in  a  way  ornamental,  so  do  the  Bantams 
occupy  a  similar  position  among  fowls.  They  are 
often  reared  as  children's  pets  and  undoubtedly 
afford  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  for  both  young  and 
old.  Among  the  most  common  and  popular  varieties 
of  Bantams  may  be  mentioned  the  Black,  White, 


Bantams  87 

Buff,  and  Partridge  Cochin;  Dark  and  Light 
Brahma;  Golden  and  Silver  Sebright;  Bearded 
White  and  Buff-faced  Polish;  Black-tailed,  White 
and  Black  Japanese,  and  many  varieties  of  Games. 
Probably  the  Golden  and  the  Silver  Sebright  and 
the  Buff  Cochin  are  quite  as  popular  as  any. 

For  exhibition  purposes  the  plumage  and  form 
of  these  miniature  representatives  correspond  closely 
to  the  varieties  of  larger  fowls.  Small  size  is  preferred. 
There  seems  to  be  a  marked  tendency  on  the  part 
of  some  varieties  of  Bantams  to  revert  to  the  larger 
fowls  from  which  they  were  derived. 


CHAPTER   VI 

BUILDINGS  FOR    FOWLS:  LOCATION    PLANS  AND 
CONSTRUCTION 

THE  convenience  of  location  both  as  to  the 
situation  and  arrangement  of  buildings  is  a  most 
potent  factor  bearing  on  the  financial  success  of 
the  business.  Poultrymen  who  aim  to  make  a  com- 
mercial enterprise  of  poultry-keeping  consider 
proximity  to  market  and  shipping  facilities  before 
taking  up  the  many  minor  details. 

The  larger  questions  that  affect  the  whole  enter- 
prise should  receive  attention  first,  as  a  serious 
mistake  in  locating  may  turn  into  failure  what 
otherwise  would  have  been  a  success. 

The  location  of  poultry  houses  is  often  thought 
to  be  of  minor  importance  when  compared  with 
the  location  of  other  farm  buildings.  This  may  be 
true  when  but  few  fowls  are  to  be  kept  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  supplying  the  home  table,  but  the  profit 
derived  from  keeping  these  few  fowls  is  frequently 
very  much  less  than  it  would  be  if  the  same  care 
and  thought  were  given  them  that  is  devoted  to 
other  farm  stock.  The  greatest  success  requires 
thought  and  judgment  in  all  operations. 

(88) 


Thorough  Drainage  Necessary  89 

LOCATION   OF   BUILDINGS 

In  selecting  a  site  for  poultry  houses  and  yards, 
three  important  points  should  be  constantly  borne 
in  mind:  (1)  health  of  the  fowls,  (2)  convenience 
of  the  attendant,  and  (3)  liability  to  vermin  and 
other  poultry  enemies. 

Health  of  the  fowls. — As  cleanliness  and  freedom 
from  moisture  are  two  highly  essential  conditions 
of  successful  poultry-keeping,  the  natural  sur- 
roundings which  strongly  influence  them  should 
receive  first  consideration.  A  dry,  porous  soil  not 
only  insures  a  suitable  yard  or  run,  whenever  the 
weather  is  favorable  for  the  fowls  to  take  out-of- 
door  exercise,  but  also  controls  to  some  extent  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  buildings.  If  the  highest 
degree  of  success  is  to  be  attained,  cleanliness  and 
freedom  from  moisture  must  be  secured.  Partial 
success  or  entire  failure  is  undoubtedly  more  fre- 
quently due  to  filthy  houses  and  yards,  together 
with  dampness,  than  to  any  other  causes.  Particu- 
larly is  this  true  with  those  whose  chief  interests 
lie  in  other  directions,  and  who,  consequently, 
more  or  less  neglect  their  smaller  poultry  interests 
during  certain  portions  of  the  year.  If  it  is  desired 
to  keep  poultry  on  heavy  or  wet  soils,  the  land 
should  be  thoroughly  underdrained.  The  removal 
of  the  surplus  water  from  the  yards  or  runs  very 
much  lessens  the  labor  of  keeping  them  clean,  par- 


90  Farm  Poultry 

ticularly  during  the  growing  season.  During  the 
summer  months  a  yard  or  run  of  loose  sand  or 
gravelly  soil  will  require  comparatively  little  labor 
to  keep  it  clean,  while  a  similar  one  on  a  heavy 
and  impervious  clay  will  demand  continual  atten- 
tion, and  even  this  will  not  always  suffice  to  keep 
the  yards  in  a  satisfactory  condition.  A  heavy  soil 
not  only  retains  nearly  all  of  the  droppings  on  the 
surface,  but  by  retarding  the  percolation  in  times 
of  frequent  rains  soon  gives  a  coating  of  filth.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  those  parts  of  the  yard  most 
frequented  by  the  fowls. 

A  slightly  raised  elevation  is  to  be  preferred, 
particularly  if  the  ground  slopes  gently  on  all  sides 
from  the  building.  This  will  insure  good  surface 
drainage  -in  times  of  heavy  showers  and  whenever 
the  ground  is  frozen.  While  a  somewhat  light  or 
porous  soil  that  is  naturally  well  underdrained 
is  to  be  preferred,  it  should  not  be  inferred  that 
success  may  not  be  attained  on  somewhat  heavier 
soils  if  they  are  thoroughly  underdrained.  Any 
good  potato  soil  that  is  naturally  well  drained  will 
not  be  objectionable  on  account  of  excessive  moisture. 

Another  important  consideration  is  the  admis- 
sion to  the  houses  and  yards  of  abundant  sunshine. 
Fowls,  like  other  classes  of  live  stock,  do  not  thrive 
so  well  when  deprived  of  sunshine.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  laying  fowls  during  the  cold  winter 
months.  The  houses,  yards  or  runs  should  be  so 


Light  and  Sunshine  Desirable 


91 


planned,  if  possible,  as  to  give  them  a  southern  or 
southeastern  exposure  (Figs.  26,  27).  Many  build- 
ings for  domesticated  animals  are  so  constructed 
that  they  do  not  admit  sufficient  light  and  air  for 
the  best  health  of  the  occupants.  It  has  been  found 
by  experience  that  animals  have  a  somewhat  whiter 


FIG.  26.  A  poultry  house — Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. 

skin  and  present  a  somewhat  more  delicate  appear- 
ance when  deprived  of  direct  sunlight  than  when 
they  are  permitted  to  bask  in  the  sunshine  at  will. 
This  is  frequently  noticed  in  dairy  cows,  in  which 
a  yellow  skin  is  so  highly  prized. 

Poultrymen  turn  to  good  advantage  all  the 
sunshine  they  can  secure  in  the  winter  time  in 
order  to  maintain  a  high  standard  of  vigor  and  to 


92 


Farm  Poultry 


stimulate  egg  production.  It  is  an  advantage  to 
have  the  yard  on  the  south  side  of  the  house,  in 
order  that  the  fowls  may  have  the  benefit  of  the 
first  dry  ground  in  the  early  spring.  It  frequently 
occurs  in  localities  where  snow  is  more  or  less  abun- 
dant that  the  ground  on  the  south  side  of  the  build- 
ing will  be  dry  many  days  before  that  on  the  north 


CRUSHLD  f~ 
SHELLS    I 


NESTS  UNDER    BOARDS 
PCRCHCS 


4 

i 


FIG.  27.  Ground  plan  of  poultry  house — Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. 


side  is  entirely  free  from  frost  and  dampness.  The 
relative  location  of  the  house  and  yard  is,  therefore, 
of  sufficient  importance  to  demand  one's  best  thought 
and  care  in  planning. 

Convenience. — The  poultry  business,  if  prop- 
erly conducted,  necessitates  close  attention  to 
many  details,  each  one,  perhaps,  somewhat  insig- 
nificant in  itself,  yet  of  so  much  importance 


Convenience  Important  93 

when  considered  in  the  aggregate  that  success  or 
failure  may  depend  on  its  performance  or  neglect. 
In  a  general  way,  the  labor  is  not  considered  heavy 
or  burdensome,  but  constant  vigilance  and  atten- 
tion are  necessary.  The  mere  fact  that  there  are 
many  small  details  requiring  attention  demands 
that  convenient  houses  and  yards  be  built,  since 
a  little  inconvenience  each  day,  or  perhaps  several 
times  a  day,  will,  in  time,  create  an  unnecessary 
expense  of  considerable  magnitude.  Economy  of 
labor  requires  convenience  of  appliances,  and 
nowhere  is  this  better  illustrated  than  in  the  poul- 
try business.  It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that 
whenever  labor  may  be  performed  conveniently 
it  is  less  likely  to  be  neglected  than  when  it  is  per- 
formed with  difficulty.  While  one  should  not  enter 
into  the  poultry  business  with  the  thought  of  neglect- 
ing any  of  its  details,  or  to  plan  for  any  but  thorough 
work,  yet,  knowing  the  shortcomings  of  human 
operations  and  tendencies,  one  will  fail  to  make  the 
most  of  his  opportunities  if  he  does  not  consider 
the  inclinations  of  those  who  are  expected  to  per- 
form the  work.  To  do  the  work  thoroughly  will 
require  a  little  attention  several  times  a  day.  The 
fowls  must  be  fed  and  watered,  houses  must  be  kept 
clean  and  other  attentions  given.  In  nearly  all 
kinds  of  agricultural  work  the  labor  account  is  one 
of  the  greatest  items  of  expense  in  conducting  the 
business. 


94 


Farm  Poultry 


2  Rods 


-*.- 

£*„ 


33' 


-House. 


4 


<3»40    House. 


FIG.  28.  A  good  plan  for  poultry  houses  and  yards.  Each  house  will  accom- 
modate from  80  to  100  fowls.    The  yards  are  planted  with  fruit  trees. 

A  convenient  arrangement  of  houses  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  28.  The  attendant  may  go  from  one  house 
to  another,  passing  through  each  pen  without  going 
through  yards,  which  would  necessitate  opening 
and  closing  gates.  It  should  be  observed  that  each 
house  is  provided  with  two  doors,  in  order  that 
the  poultryman  may  enter  one  and  pass  out  at  the 
other  in  less  time  than  would  be  required  if  but 


Guard  against  Enemies  95 

one  door  were  provided.  This  arrangement,  how- 
ever, may  not  be  found  to  be  applicable  on  many 
farms,  particularly  where  but  one  small  house 
is  needed. 

Vermin,  etc. — Rats  and  mice  often  become  seri- 
ous pests  in  poultry  houses,  particularly  if  grain 
is  kept  in  these  buildings.  For  the  same  reason,  it 
is  generally  best  to  locate  the  poultry  houses  some 
distance  from  other  farm  buildings,  particularly 
from  those  in  which  grain  is  stored.  Every  farmer 
well  knows  how  difficult  it  is  to  store  grain  for  any 
considerable  length  of  time  and  keep  it  entirely 
free  from  these  pests.  While  convenience  of  access 
is  of  prime  importance,  yet  often  it  is  best  to  make  a 
slight  sacrifice  of  labor  in  order  to  secure  the  great- 
est freedom  from  rats  and  mice.  Isolated  build- 
ings will  probably  give  the  greatest  satisfaction  in 
the  end.  Mice  will  probably  not  be  troublesome 
in  poultry  houses  unless  grain  is  stored  in  these 
buildings,  but  rats  are  likely  to  give  more  or  less 
trouble,  particularly  in  brooder  houses  and  in  pens 
or  yards  frequented  by  young  chickens. 

In  some  localities,  crows,  hawks,  skunks  and  other 
poultry  enemies  give  some  trouble,  and  one  must 
plan  to  meet  these  annoyances  according  to  his 
best  judgment.  It  may  be  necessary  in  some  cases 
to  cover  entirely  small  yards  in  which  young  chick- 
ens are  kept,  with  netting,  in  order  to  protect  them 
properly  from  hawks  and  crows.  A  covered  run  for 


96  Farm  Poultry 

little  chickens  is  described  in  the  chapter  on  feeding. 
Skunks  may  be  excluded  by  proper  fencing. 
Wherever  vermin  are  numerous  enough  to  give  seri- 
ous annoyance,  all  possible  ingenuity  should  be  exer- 
cised to  exclude  them  before  resorting  to  destruc- 
tion by  poison.  While  poison  may  sometimes  be 
safely  used,  the  danger  of  poisoning  the  fowls  and 
other  domestic  animals  is  so  great  that  one  is  not 
warranted  in  using  it  except  as  a  last  resort. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF   HOUSES 

In  designing  poultry  houses,  the  form  is  neces- 
sarily one  of  the  first  points  to  be  determined. 
While  the  design  is  under  consideration,  the  essen- 
tials of  a  farm  poultry  house  should  be  continually 
kept  in  mind.  The  chief  essentials  may  be  enu- 
merated as  warmth,  dryness,  light  and  cheapness. 
In  order  to  assure  proper  lighting,  it  is  often  found 
necessary  to  deviate  somewhat  from  the  form  that 
would  give  the  greatest  warmth  for  the  least  cost. 
In  all  poultry  houses  in  which  fowls  are  confined 
during  the  cold  winter  months,  some  provision 
should  be  made  to  admit  sunlight  on  the  floor,  where 
the  fowls  may  congregate.  In  order  to  accomplish 
this  to  the  best  advantage,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a 
considerable  frontage  toward  the  south  or  southeast. 
During  December,  January  and  February  it  is 
most  difficult,  yet  most  essential,  to  have  the  direct 


Forms  of  Houses 


97 


sunlight.  Square  or  octagon  houses  inclose  %  the 
most  space  for  the  money  expended,  and  also  give 
opportunity  for  warm  houses  which  may  be  con- 


FIG.  29.   A  double  house — Pennsylvania  State  College 


J  ; 

PERCHFS 

J 

I 

PELRCNtS 

.c 

1     [    1     1     1    1     1     1    1 

1           1           1           1           1           I           1           1           1 

NdSTS 

VSTER 
HtLl-3 

can: 


FIG.  30.   Ground  plan  of  double  house — Pennsylvania  State  College. 

structed  cheaply,  but  in  order  to  secure  sunlight 
it  is  necessary  to  build  the  house  considerably  longer 
than  wide.  For  economy,  it  is  also  desirable  to  build 
a  house  longer  than  is  necessary  for  one  pen  or 
flock  of  fowls.  A  long  and  comparatively  narrow 


98 


Farm  Poultry 


house,  with  light  partitions  constructed  largely  of 
netting,  may  be  erected  for  considerably  less  expense 
than  two  or  more  separate  houses  having  the  same 
capacity.  That  is,  it  is  much  cheaper  to  construct 
a  partition  across  a  narrow  poultry  house  than  to 
construct  two  end  walls.  Then,  too,  adjoining 
poultry  pens,  connected  by  an  easy  swinging  door, 


FIG.  31.   Poultry  houses — West  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

are  more  convenient  for  the  attendant  than  two 
separate  houses.  The  arrangement  of  having  two 
or  more  pens  in  one  building  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance where  warm  houses  must  be  provided  to 
guard  against  frosted  combs  and  wattles.  (See 
Figs.  29  and  30.) 

In    constructing    poultry    houses,    the    material 


Selection  of  Material 


99 


to  be  used  and  the  manner  of  building  will  depend 
largely  upon  the  material  at  hand.  In  one  locality 
certain  materials  may  be  comparatively  cheap,  while 
in  other  localities  the  same  articles  may  be  relatively 
more  expensive  than  other  material  equally  suitable 
for  the  purpose.  In  selecting  material,  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  building  is  to  provide  a 


FIG.  32.   Poultry  houses  and  yards — Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. 

warm,  dry,  well- ventilated,  well-lighted  home  for 
the  fowls.  If  these  requirements  are  satisfactorily 
complied  with,  it  will  be  necessary  to  provide  roof 
and  side  walls  that  are  impervious  to  moisture  and 
relatively  poor  conductors  of  heat.  Suitable  arrange- 
ments for  ventilating  and  lighting  the  building  must 
be  provided,  and  some  provision  should  be  made 


100  Farm  Poultry 

to  exclude  the  moisture  from  beneath,  particularly 
if  the  soil  is  damp. 

Size  of  building. — The  size  of  the  building 
required  will  depend  largely  upon  the  number  of 
fowls  to  be  kept.  While  fowls  of  some  breeds  re- 
quire more  room  than  the  same  number  of  indi- 
viduals of  other  breeds,  yet  the  number  is  of  more 
importance  than  the  breed  in  determining  the  size 
of  the  building.  The  noted  egg  breeds  are  much 
more  active  than  the  heavier,  slow-moving  breeds, 
and  therefore  require  quite  as  much  room,  although 
in  weight  they  are  far  inferior. 

The  climate  will  determine  to  a  considerable 
extent  the  size  of  the  buildings.  If  the  climate 
is  so  mild  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  keep  the  fowls 
confined  within  doors  much  of  the  time,  smaller 
houses  will  suffice  than  in  colder  latitudes  where 
the  fowls  are  kept  in  the  house  for  weeks  at  a  time. 
In  the  latitude  of  New  York  City  and  farther  north, 
where  fowls  are  expected  to  be  kept  within  doors  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  year,  five  square  feet  of 
floor  space  per  fowl  will  suffice  for  most  breeds,  and 
it  will  be  none  too  much  for  best  results.  This  may 
be  taken  as  a  general  rule  when  the  house  is  to  be 
kept  in  good  condition  as  regards  cleanliness  and 
ventilation.  If  the  houses  are  to  be  more  or  less 
neglected,  considerably  more  space  should  be 
provided. 

It  is  somewhat  more  difficult  to  give  a  good 


102  Farm  Poultry 

working  rule  as  regards  air-space  or  cubical  con- 
tents of  the  building.  Under  good  average  con- 
ditions, six  or  eight  cubic  feet  per  pound  of  live  weight 
will  perhaps  be  quite  satisfactory.  The  amount  of 
air-space,  of  course,  will  depend  upon  the  ventila- 
tion, and  also  upon  the  sources  of  contamina- 
tion, aside  from  the  fowls  themselves.  If  manure 
is  allowed  to  accumulate  and  the  litter  becomes 
damp,  the  air  will  become  impure.  Other  things 
being  equal,  it  will  become  impure  sooner  in  small 
houses  than  in  large  ones.  The  above  rule  as  regards 
air-space  has  given  good  satisfaction  under  favor- 
able conditions,  and  may  be  used  in  the  absence  of 
more  definite*  information  derived  from  actual 
experience. 

Foundation. — When  permanent  houses  are  to 
be  built,  it  is  undoubtedly  most  economical,  in 
the  long  run,  to  erect  them  on  foundations  made 
of  brick,  stone  or  concrete.  Such  foundations 
should  extend  into  the  ground  below  the  frost  line, 
should  be  vermin-proof,  and  so  constructed  as  to 
exclude  drafts  of  air.  Some  provision  should  be 
made  to  give  thorough  ventilation  during  the  warm 
seasons  of  the  year,  if  the  floor  and  its  supports 
are  to  be  constructed  of  wood. 

It  is  not  safe  to  inclose  wooden  floor  supports 
with  solid  walls  of  masonry  on  account  of  the  liabil- 
ity of  "dry  rot"  to  destroy  the  supports  and  even 
to  ruin  the  floor.  A  free  ventilation  should  be  pro- 


Foundations  for  Houses  103 

vided  by  means  of  openings  in  the  foundation  walls 
of  all  buildings  when  the  floors  are  placed  within 
a  few  feet  of  the  ground. 

When  wooden  floors  are  constructed  near  the 
ground,  it  is  essential  to  arrange  the  foundation 
walls  so  that  rats  cannot  gain  access  underneath 
the  floor.  This  may  be  readily  accomplished  by 
covering  windows  or  openings  in  the  walls  with 
fine-meshed  wire  screens.  Close-fitting  blinds  may 
be  used  to  close  the  windows  and  prevent  draft 
underneath  the  house  during  the  colder  part  of 
the  year.  If  suitable  stones  are  at  hand  for  the 
construction  of  foundation  walls,  they  undoubtedly 
may  be  used  to  good  advantage.  When  neither 
brick  nor  stone  is  readily  available,  the  founda- 
tion walls  may  be  made  of  grout  or  concrete,  pro- 
vided small  stone  or  gravel  can  be  readily  obtained. 
On  many  farms  small  field-stones,  which  prove  a 
hindrance  to  cultivation,  may  be  used  to  good 
advantage. 

Walls  of  this  description  may  be  constructed 
without  the  aid  of  skilled  labor  and  at  a  very  moder- 
ate expense.  In  order  to  construct  such  walls  satis- 
factorily, it  is  necessary  to  dig  narrow  trenches 
below  the  frost  line.  A  simple  and  effective  manner 
of  proceeding  is  as  follows:  Drive  rows  of  stakes 
into  the  ground,  one  row  on  each  side  of  the  trench, 
and  nail  boards  on  the  inside  of  the  stakes.  The 
boards  are  used  to  hold  the  concrete  in  place  until 


104 


Farm  Poultry 


the  cement  hardens.  Old,  rough  or  uneven  boards 
may  be  used,  except  for  the  top  ones,  which  should 
have  the  upper  edges  straight.  The  upper  boards 
should  be  placed  level,  as  they  will  determine  the 
top  of  the  wall.  The  stakes  which  hold  the  boards 
should  be  firm  enough  to  withstand  the  pressure 


FIG.  34.    Method  of  constructing  a  concrete  wall. 

of  the  stones  and  cement  without  yielding  very 
much.  If  the  ground  is  so  hard  that  stakes  cannot 
be  driven  readily,  tall  stakes  may  be  used  and 
supported  by  fastening  the  tops  together  as  shown 
in  Fig.  34.  Place  a  few  layers  of  stone  in  the  bottom 
of  the  trench,  then  put  on  some  thin  cement,  and 
pound  down  by  means  of  a  light  pounder.  This 
operation  should  be  repeated  until  the  desired 


Construction  of  Concrete   Walls  105 

height  is  reached.  The  top  may  be  smoothed  off 
with  a  ditching  spade  or  trowel,  using  the  top  board 
as  a  guide. 

The  wall  should  be  left  until  the  cement  is  hard, 
when  the  building  may  be  placed  upon  it.  The 
boards  at  the  side  may  be  removed  at  any  time 
after  the  cement  becomes  hard.  If  old  boards 
have  been  used  at  the  bottom,  it  will  not  pay  to 
remove  them.  A  concrete  wall  of  this  kind  may  be 
constructed  of  cheap  material  and  with  ordinary 
farm  labor. 

Side  walls. — The  side  walls  of  poultry  houses 
are  usually  built  of  wood,  which  is  a  compara- 
tively cheap  material  and  is  a  poor  conductor  of 
heat.  The  side  walls  are  constructed  in  various 
ways.  For  convenience  of  discussion  the  various 
kinds  of  walls  may  be  placed  under  two  heads: 
solid  walls  and  hollow  walls.  In  cold  countries 
the  hollow  walls,  or  those  with  a  dead  air-space, 
are  to  be  preferred,  because  of  their  greater  warmth 
and  freedom  from  moisture.  In  moderate  or  warm 
climates  solid  walls  will  undoubtedly  answer  every 
purpose. 

For  latitudes  south  of  New  York,  solid  walls, 
constructed  of  one  or  two  thicknesses  of  inch  boards, 
will  prove  quite  satisfactory,  particularly  in  the 
hands  of  the  skilled  poultryman.  The  amateur 
will  undoubtedly  prefer  the  hollow  walls,  as  imper- 
fect appliances  and  buildings  are  greater  hind- 


106 


Farm  Poultry 


-Tar  "Paper. 


ranees  to  him  than  they  would  be  to  the  skilled 

and  experienced  man.    Buildings  with  hollow  side 

walls  are  cooler  in  summer, 

warmer  in  winter,  and  are 

not  so  likely  to  be  covered 

with  frost  in  severe  weather 

as  solid  walls,  particularly 

if  the  solid  wall  consists  of 

but  one  or  two  thicknesses 

of  boards.    If  the  side  walls 

and  roof  become  more  or  less 

frosted   in  severe  weather, 

dampness  results  whenever  FIG-  35- 

, .  ,  Method  of   building   a 

the  temperature  moderates      poultry  house  with 

solid   side  walls,    ce- 

sumciently  to  melt  the  frost.  ment  floor-  an<*  a  roof 
A  cheap  and  efficient  wall 
for  the  sides  and  ends  of 
the  building  may  be  con- 
structed of  two  thicknesses 
of  rough  inch  lumber.  Both 
thicknesses  of  this  siding 
should  be 

Ce-m 

putonver-  p,okenStone 
tically,with 

a  good  quality  of  tarred  build- 
ing-paper between.  When  walls 
of  this  nature  are  constructed, 
it  is  best  to  nail  on  the  inner  siding  first.    On  the  out- 
side of  these  boards  put  a  coat  of  the  tarred  paper  in 


that  is  impervious  to 
wind. 


Construction  of  Side   Walls  107 

such  a  manner  that  the  whole  surface  is  thoroughly 
covere,d,  providing  for  a  liberal  lap  wherever  the 
edges  meet.  The  object  of  this  tarred  building- 
paper  is  to  prevent  drafts  of  air  from  penetrating 
the  side  walls.  (See  Fig.  35.)  The  boards  of  the 
outside  covering  should  be  put  over  the  building- 
paper  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  break  joints 
with  the  inner  boarding.  If  boards  of  a  uniform 
width  can  be  selected  for  this  purpose,  the  ease  of 
breaking  joints  will  be  greatly  increased.  A  wall 
of  this  thickness  of  inch  boards,  with  building 
paper,  constructed  as  previously  described,  will 
prove  satisfactory  under  ordinary  conditions.  It 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that  these  walls 
will  be  covered  somewhat  with  frost  in  severe 
weather,  particularly  if  the  houses  are  well  filled 
with  fowls. 

A  hollow  wall  may  be  constructed  at  about  the 
same  expense  as  the  solid  wall  just  described.  One 
method  of  constructing  a  cheap  and  efficient  poul- 
try house  having  hollow  side  walls  is  shown  in 
Fig.  36.  The  sill  may  be  of  2  x  8  or  2  x  6  scantling, 
laid  flat  on  the  foundation  wall.  A  2  x  2  scantling 
or  strip  is  nailed  on  top  of  the  sill,  at  its  outer  edge. 
This  gives  the  width  of  the  space  or  hollow  in  the 
side  walls.  The  plate  may  be  constructed  of  a  2  x  3 
or  2x4  scantling,  placed  edgewise.  The  boards 
which  constitute  the  side  walls  are  nailed  to  the 
sides  of  the  plate  and  to  the  sides  of  the  strip  which 


108 


Farm  Poultry 


was  nailed  to  the  top  of  the  sill.  Rough  lumber  may 
be  used  for  the  side  walls,  if  strict  economy  is  desired. 
The  inner  boarding  should  be  nailed  on  first  and 
covered  on  the  outside  with  tarred  building-paper. 
This  paper  will  be  within  the  wall  when  it  is  com- 


FIG.  36. 

Method  of  constructing  a  poultry 
house  with  a  hollow  side  wall 
ana  a  dead  air-space  between 
ceiling  and  roof. 


pleted.  It  is  preferable  to  fasten  the  paper  in  place 
by  means  of  thin  strips,  laths,  pieces  of  thin  boards, 
etc.,  rather  than  to  depend  wholly  on  the  heads  of 
tacks  or  nails.  The  outside  boarding  may  now  be 
put  on,  and  the  cracks  between  the  boards  covered 
with  inexpensive  battens,  if  they  are  secured  with 
small  nails  at  frequent  intervals.  If  cheapness  is  of 


Economy  of  Roof  Construction  109 

considerable  importance,  the  ordinary  building  laths 
may  be  used,  and  will  answer  the  purpose  admirably, 
although  somewhat  heavier  battens  will  be  more 
durable.  A  mistake  is  sometimes  made  in  selecting 
heavy  battens  which  will  not  draw  down  by  nailing 
as  well  as  lighter  ones.  The  battens  on  the  outside 
boarding  and  the  tarred  building  paper  on  the 
inside  boarding  make  two  coverings,  each  of  which  is 
impervious  to  wind,  with  an  air-space  between  them. 

Roofs. — Various  kinds  of  material  are  used  in  the 
construction  of  roofs  for  poultry  houses,  although 
shingles  are  more  generally  employed  than  anything 
else.  Tin,  steel,  and  various  kinds  of  roofing-paper 
are  used,  although  they  are  more  or  less  objection- 
able on  account  of  the  great  heat  radiated  in  the 
building  during  the  hot  summer  months. 

Roofs  of  various  forms  are  constructed.  The 
gable  and  lean-to  or  shed  roofs  are  used  most.  A 
shed  roof  may  be  constructed  with  a  trifle  less 
labor  than  a  gable  roof,  yet  it  is  not  nearly  so  eco- 
nomical in  the  matter  of  space  as  the  latter.  At  first 
thought,  a  shed  roof  may  seem  to  include  the  most 
space,  but  upon  closer  analysis  it  will  be  found 
that  the  gable  roof,  other  things  being  equal,  includes 
considerably  more  space.  To  further  illustrate,  we 
will  suppose  that  boards  twelve  feet  long  are  to  be 
used  for  the  side  walls  in  constructing  a  house 
twelve  feet  wide,  the  roof  to  be  one-third  pitch.  If 
the  gable  form  be  used,  the  building  would  then 


110 


Farm  Poultry 


have  side  walls  six  feet  high,  and  the  area  included 
in  cross  section  would  be  96  square  feet.  (See  Fig.  37.) 
If  the  shed  form  of  roof  be  used  and  the  same 
material  as  described  above  for  side  walls,  but  72 
feet  in  cross  section  would  be  included.  (See  Fig. 
38.)  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  shed  roof  may 


FIG.  37.   Cross  section  of  a  poultry  house  with  a  gable  roof,  96  square  feet. 

be  constructed  at  a  trifle  less  expense  for  labor  than 
the  gable  roof  although  it  will  be  found  necessary  to 
use  somewhat  heavier  rafters  than  would  suffice 
for  the  gable  roof.  As  long  as  the  pitch  of  the  roof 
remains  the  same,  practically  the  same  roofing 
material  will  be  required  for  all  forms  of  roof.  The 
advantage  that  one  form  of  roof  may  have  over 


Forms  of  Roofs  111 

another  as  to  material  of  construction  will  occur 
in  side  walls,  ends  and  partitions.  It  often  happens 
that  one  style  of  roof  may  be  preferred  for  reasons 
other  than  those  mentioned.  It  may  be  desirable 
to  have  all  the  water  from  the  roof  on  one  side  of 
the  building,  that  the  other  side  may  be  kept  as 
dry  as  possible;  then  the  shed  roof  would  be  preferred. 


FIG.  38. 

Cross  section  of  a 
poultry  house  with 
a  shed  roof,  72 
square  feet. 


Then,  too,  the  shed  roof,  if  the  building  faces  the 
south,  will  absorb  less  heat  from  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun  than  would  a  roof  of  the  gable  form:  this 
of  course  will  be  most  noticeable  during  the  hot 
summer  months  and  if  a  dark  roofing  material 
be  used. 

It  often  happens  that  the  location  or  peculiar 
conditions  as  to  soil,  exposure,  etc.,  on   the  farm 


112 


Farm  Poultry 


in  question  will  require  a  particular  form  of  build- 
ing that  might  not  be  advisable  to  construct  on 
another  farm  under  very  different  conditions.  It 
is  for  each  one  to  determine  for  himself  that  which 
may  answer  his  purpose  best.  There  is  no  hard 
and  fast  rule  as  to  the  construction  of  buildings 


*FiG.  39.    Types  of  roofs,  showing  combination  form. 

that  will  apply  equally  well  to  all  of  the  vast  multi- 
tude of  conditions  under  which  fowls  may  be  profit- 
ably maintained  on  American  farms.  Each  indi- 
vidual poultryman  should  ever  bear  in  mind  the 
ideal  conditions  for  profitable  work,  and  so  construct 
his  buildings  that  the  ideal  may  be  approached 
as  nearly  as  possible. 

*Michigan  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  266. 


Construction  of  Roofs  113 

A  form  of  roof  known  as  the  "Combination" 
has  become  quite  popular  and  under  some  circum- 
stances has  many  advantages. 

Whatever  form  of  roof  be  used,  it  should  be  so 
constructed  that  it  will  effectually  exclude  all  drafts 
of  air.  Shingled  roofs,  as  ordinarily  constructed, 
do  not  sufficiently  exclude  drafts.  In  order  to  make 
such  roofs  satisfactory  it  is  necessary  to  cover  the 
roof  boards  with  building-paper  before  the  shingles 
are  laid,  or  to  provide  an  inner  ceiling  for  the  poul- 
try house.  Either  of  these  will  exclude  the  drafts, 
but  both  are  more  or  less  objectionable.  Each 
one  must  choose  what  seems  to  him  to  be  the  lesser 
of  the  two  evils.  The  building-paper  underneath 
the  shingles  prevents  the  shingles  from  drying  as 
readily  as  they  otherwise  would,  and,  consequently, 
materially  shortens  the  life  of  the  roof.  Experience 
has  taught  that  the  shingled  roofs  that  dry  quickest 
last  longest.  The  ceiling  on  the  inside  of  the  ordinary 
shingled  roofs  is  objectionable  on  account  of  the 
additional  expense.  With  the  steady  advance  in 
the  price  of  shingles,  other  roofing  materials  are 
gaining  in  popular  favor.  Felt  and  paper  that  are 
protected  by  various  kinds  of  paints  and  other  pro- 
tective material  are  largely  used.  These  roofing 
materials  seem  to  be  particularly  well  adapted  to 
the  small,  low  and  easily  accessible  roofs  of  poultry 
houses. 

Floors. — Some    successful    poultry-keepers    pre- 


114  Farm  Poultry 

fer  earth  floors  to  artificial  ones,  but  as  these  are 
somewhat  more  difficult  to  keep  clean  many  prefer 
an  artificial  floor  constructed  of  wood  or  cement. 
Wooden  floors  are  used,  although  they  are  some- 
what more  expensive  to  construct,  and  it  is  often 
necessary  to  replace  them  every  few  years.  The 
"submerged  cement  floor"  is  preferred  by  some.  In 
constructing  this  floor  the  ground  should  be  slightly 
excavated  so  that  the  top  of  the  cement  floor  when 
finished  will  be  a  trifle  lower  than  that  desired  for 
the  fowls.  The  cement  may  be  placed  directly  on 
the  ground  if  the  earth  is  firm.  If  the  earth  is  not 
firm  it  should  be  further  excavated  and  filled  with 
stone,  which  should  be  thoroughly  pounded  before 
applying  the  cement.  (See  Fig.  35.)  After  the  cement 
hardens,  sand  or  gravel  may  be  used  to  cover  it  to 
a  depth  of  from  one  to  three  inches.  Some  poultry- 
men  prefer  to  place  the  cement  floor  somewhat 
higher  than  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  order  to 
secure  good  drainage,  depending  on  litter  to  pro- 
tect the  fowls  from  coming  in  contact  with  the 
cement  when  the  weather  is  cold.  A  cement  floor 
properly  constructed  is  a  most  excellent  protection 
against  rats  and  mice  and  has  become  very  popular, 
particularly  where  an  abundance  of  suitable  litter 
may  be  obtained  cheaply.  These  floors  if  properly 
constructed  are  most  durable  and  are  easily  cleaned, 
— a  most  important  feature. 

Windows. — For    the    colder    latitudes,    windows 


Location  and  Form  of  Windows  115 

should  not  be  large,  not  more  than  one  to  every 
ten  feet  in  length  for  a  house  twelve  feet  wide.  These 
should  be  placed  on  the  south  side  and  at  such 
distance  from  the  floor  as  to  allow  the  greatest 
possible  amount  of  sunshine  to  fall  upon  the  floor 
during  the  cold  winter  months.  It  is  desirable  to 
have  the  windows  of  such  size  that  one  may  be  placed 
in  each  division  or  pen.  One  square  foot  of  window 
opening  for  each  fifteen  to  seventeen  square  feet  of 
floor-space  will  be  quite  sufficient  under  ordinary 
conditions.  In  order  to  secure  most  sunshine  on  the 
floor  the  windows  should  be  so  placed  that  their 
greatest  length  is  vertical.  At  noon,  during  the  short- 
est days  of  the  year,  in  the  latitude  of  New  York 
City,  the  sun's  rays  make  about  the  same  angle 
with  the  horizon  as  that  of  a  quarter  pitch  roof;  that 
is,  an  object  one  foot  high  would  cast  a  shadow  two 
feet  long.  Then,  if  the  bottom  of  the  window  be 
placed  eighteen  inches  from  the  floor,  the  sunshine 
on  the  floor  will  be  three  feet  from  the  side  of  the 
building  in  which  the  window  is  placed.  In  cold 
latitudes  it  is  a  common  and  somewhat  serious  mis- 
take to  use  more  windows  than  are  absolutely  needed 
for  the  health  and  convenience  of  the  fowls.  While 
sunlight  is  desirable,  many  windows  make  the 
building  cold,  unless  they  are  covered  with  shutters 
or  heavy  curtains,  during  the  severest  weather.  It 
has  been  found  that  windows  radiate  about  four 
times  as  much  heat  as  the  same  area  of  side  walls 


116 


Farm   Poultry 


FIG.  40.    Window  of  poultry  house  protected  by  a  wooden  shutter 
for  summer  use. 

in  average  well-constructed  dwelling  houses.  If 
warm  houses  are  desired  large  window  surface 
should  be  avoided.  A  coat  of  whitewash  on  the  inte- 
rior will  aid  materially  in  making  the  building  light. 
Sliding  windows  are  preferred  on  many  accounts 
to  those  that  open  by  means  of  hinges.  They  can 


Windows  and   Ventilation  117 

be  partially  opened  for  ventilation  in  warm  weather, 
and  during  the  extreme  heat  of  summer  they  may 
be  left  entirely  open.  The  opening  should  be  covered 
with  poultry  netting  to  confine  the  fowls,  and  if  the 
mesh  is  fine  enough  to  exclude  the  English  sparrow, 
annoyance  is  sometimes  avoided. 

Whether  the  windows  are  made  to  slide  either 
vertically  or  horizontally,  or  are  hinged  either  at 
the  top  or  at  the  sides,  is  a  matter  for  each  poultry- 
man  to  determine  for  himself.  After  considering 
the  various  methods  of  construction  it  is  for  the 
owner  or  manager  to  select  that  which  appears  to 
be  best  for  him.  He  should  be  able  to  give  a  reason 
for  the  particular  construction  of  every  poultry 
appliance  with  which  he  has  to  deal. 

Comparatively  cheap  window  shades  may  be 
made  of  thin  matched  lumber  nailed  together  so 
as  to  make  a  solid  shutter.  This  shade,  or  shutter, 
may  be  hinged  to  the  side  of  the  poultry  house 
just  above  the  window  with  loose  hinges,  the  lower 
edge  supported  by  a  wire,  as  shown  in  Fig.  40. 
Such  shades  exclude  the  sun  and  serve  as  a  protection 
from  the  heat  during  the  warmest  part  of  the  year 
when  the  windows  are  left  open.  The  loose  hinges 
permit  of  easy  removal  for  winter  storage. 

Ventilation. — During  the  warm  weather  the  open 
windows  will  afford  sufficient  ventilation,  but  dur- 
ing the  colder  months  some  means  of  ventilating 
the  building  should  be  provided,  aside  from  that 


118 


Farm  Poultry 


afforded  by  the  doors  and  windows.  Many  ventila- 
tors have  been  planned  for  poultry  houses,  but  all 
ventilators  that  are  in  continuous  operation  either 
give  too  much  ventilation  during  the  coldest  weather 
or  not  enough  during  the  warm,  still  days.  As  a 
rule,  they  furnish  too  much  ventilation  during  the 
cold  nights,  and  not  enough  during  the  sunny  part 
of  the  day.  Any  system  of  ventilation  that  will 


FIG.  41.   A  good  ventilator. 

fully  meet  the  requirements  of  the  busy  farmer  or 
poultryman  must  be  simple  and  readily  controlled 
by  the  attendant.  Ventilators  are  not  needed  in 
the  severest  weather,  but  during  the  warm  days  of 
spring  and  whenever  the  temperature  is  above 
freezing  point  during  the  winter  and  early  spring, 
some  ventilation  should  be  given.  Farmers  and  poul- 
trymen  should  aim  to  ventilate  their  poultry  houses 
as  they  ventilate  their  own  sleeping  apartments. 


Ventilators  and  Muslin   Windows  119 

Little  or  no  ventilation  is  needed  at  night  during  the 
severest  weather  in  the  colder  latitudes,  but  during 
the  day,  when  the  fowls  are  more  or  less  actively 
engaged  in  scratching  in  the  litter,  the  house  should 
be  ventilated  just  as  regularly  as  a  sleeping  apart- 
ment should  be  aired  when  not  occupied  or  when 
the  occupant  is  actively  engaged  in  light  manual 
labor.  Houses  with  single  walls  will  become  quite 
frosty  on  the  inside  during  the  severest  weather, 
and  this  will  cause  more  or  less  dampness  whenever 
the  temperature  is  sufficiently  high  to  thaw  the 
frost  from  the  walls  and  roof.  At  this  time  ventila- 
tion is  most  needed  and  may  be  supplied  by  placing 
a  ventilator  in  the  highest  part  of  the  roof,  which 
will  permit  the  heated  air  to  escape.  It  is  rarely 
necessary  to  provide  special  means  for  cold  air 
to  enter,  as  there  is  usually  a  sufficient  number  of 
cracks  about  doors  and  windows  to  admit  cold  air 
if  means  be  provided  for  the  lighter  air  to  escape. 
Fig.  41  illustrates  the  construction  of  a  cheap  and 
effective  ventilator.  This  may  be  readily  closed 
and  opened  by  means  of  cords  or  chains  as  the 
attendant  passes  through  the  house. 

Muslin  windows  have  had  and  still  have  many 
earnest  advocates.  As  a  means  of  ventilation  with 
minimum  drafts  they  serve  a  most  useful  purpose. 
They  transmit  light  also,  but,  like  many  other 
appliances,  have  some  serious  faults.  Under  some 
conditions  they  soon  become  soiled  and  then  are 


120  Farm  Poultry 

not  so  effective  either  as  transmitters  of  light  or 
as  ventilators.  Their  use,  however,  is  to  be  com- 
mended even  though  they  may  require  somewhat  fre- 
quent renewals.  Houses  have  been  constructed 
with  a  straw  ceiling  as  an  aid  to  ventilation.  They 
are  constructed  as  follows:  A  gable-roofed  house 
is  floored  over  with  narrow  boards  placed  a  few  inches 


FIG.  42.   A  combined  muslin  and  open  front  house — Cornell  University. 

apart  at  the  height  of  the  plate  or  a  little  higher. 
These  boards  are  then  covered  with  clean  straw 
to  the  depth  of  eight  inches  or  a  foot.  The  space 
between  the  straw  and  the  roof  is  ventilated  by  means 
of  open  windows  in  the  ends  of  the  building.  The 
heated  air  of  the  building  will  pass  up  through  the 
straw  and  out  at  the  windows.  This  may  work 
nicely  under  certain  conditions  but  unless  other 
means  are  used  for  ventilating  it  will  be  found  to 


Open-front  Houses 


121 


be  insufficient  at  times  and  more  than  is  needed  in 
extreme  cold  weather.  Then  too,  the  straw  soon 
becomes  dusty  and  requires  changing.  This  manner 
of  ventilating  has  not  become  very  popular. 

Open-front    houses. — These    have    been    recom- 
mended largely  on  account  of  the  extreme  venti- 


FIG.  43.   An  open  front  colony  house. 

lation  which  they  afford,  but  for  cold  climates  they 
cannot  take  the  place  of  the  warmer  and  more 
comfortable  quarters  provided  by  careful  poultry- 
men.  While  reasonably  cold  pure  air  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  warmer  impure  air,  yet  it  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  it  is  the  purity  of  the  air  and  not  the 
low  temperature  that  is  desirable.  A  moderately 


122  Farm  Poultry 

warm  pure  air  is  desired.  The  greatest  vigor  cannot 
be  secured  if  the  fowls  are  required  to  breathe 
impure  air.  Neither  can  greatest  production  be 
obtained  if  the  fowls  are  uncomfortable  on  account 
of  the  low  temperature.  For  prolificacy  the  spring- 
time conditions  in  central  northern  United  States 
are  without  doubt  the  nearest  ideal, — a  moderately 
warm  temperature,  pure  fresh  air,  plenty  of  exer- 
cise with  fresh  vegetable,  grain  and  animal  food. 


CHAPTER  VII 

BUILDINGS:  INTERNAL    ARRANGEMENTS   AND    YARDS 

Perches. — While  the  construction  of  the  perches 
is  perhaps  of  less  importance  than  many  other 
details  of  a  well-equiped  poultry  house,  yet  one 
should  be  able  to  give  a  reason  for  constructing 
each  part  of  the  house  in  a  particular  way,  and 
it  will  be  necessary  to  give  considerable  thought 
to  the  planning  and  arrangement  of  minor  features. 
In  the  construction  of  perches  two  objects  should 
be  kept  in  mind:  (1)  The  perches  should  be  con- 
venient for  the  fowls  and  (2)  so  arranged  that  the 
droppings  may  be  readily  caught  without  falling 
to  the  floor  or  soiling  the  litter.  For  heavy-bodied 
fowls  the  perches  should  not  be  more  than  two  and 
one-half  or  three  feet  from  the  floor,  and  all  should 
be  of  the  same  height.  Many  fowls  prefer  to  perch 
far  above  the  ground  in  order,  without  doubt,  to 
be  more  secure  from  their  enemies.  It  may  be 
accepted  as  natural  for  fowls  to  perch  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  ground  in  order 
that  they  may  be  better  protected  from  skunks, 
minks,  foxes,  etc.  In  the  poultry  house,  from  which 
these  enemies  are  excluded,  however,  low  perches 

(123) 


124  Farm  Poultry 

are  considered  just  as  safe  and  much  better  for 
heavy-bodied  fowls.  More  or  less  clumsy,  heavy- 
bodied  fowls  ascend  to  high  perches  with  difficulty, 
and  are  likely  to  be  injured  in  alighting  from  any 
considerable  elevation.  Convenient  ladders  or  walks 
may  be  constructed,  which  will  enable  the  fowls  to 
approach  the  perches  without  great  effort,  but  there 
are  always  times  when  clumsy  fowls  will  attempt 
to  fly  to  the  floor,  although  injury  to  themselves 
may  result.  Leghorns  and  other  egg  breeds  may 
safely  perch  somewhat  higher  than  the  Asiatics, 
and  if  the  buildings  are  well  constructed  this  may 
be  an  advantage  in  cold  weather,  as  the  fowls  will 
undoubtedly  find  it  somewhat  warmer  on  high 
perches  than  on  low  ones.  For  houses  in  cold  lati- 
tudes that  have  large  cubic  contents  for  the  number 
of  fowls  they  contain  high  perches  may  be  quite 
desirable,  particularly  if  the  roof  or  ceiling  imme- 
diately above  the  perches  be  partitioned  so  as  to 
exclude  drafts  quite  effectually. 

Only  movable  perches  should  be  constructed. 
A  2x3  scantling,  set  edgewise,  with  the  upper 
corners  rounded,  answers  every  purpose  and  makes 
a  satisfactory  perch.  Poles  or  narrow  boards  may 
be  used,  but  whatever  material  is  selected  the 
perches  should  be  so  constructed  that  they  will 
be  firm  and  will  not  tip  or  rock  when  fowls  alight 
on  them.  A  small  scantling  is  easy  to  secure  firmly 
and  also  to  clean  and  to  disinfect.  Underneath 


Perches  125 

the  perches  a  smooth  platform  should  always  be 
placed  to  catch  the  droppings.  This  is  recommended 
for  two  reasons:  first,  it  is  much  easier  to  keep 
the  house  clean  and  free  from  objectionable  odors 
if  the  droppings  are  easily  removed;  and,  second, 
the  droppings  are  valuable  as  a  fertilizer  and  should 


FIG.  44.    Movable  perches  with  board  platform  underneath  to  catch  droppings. 

not  be  mixed  with  the  litter  on  the  floor.  The 
distance  from  the  perch  to  the  platform  will  depend 
somewhat  on  the  size  of  the  fowls  and  on  the  imple- 
ment used  in  removing  the  droppings.  It  will  also 
depend  on  the  form  of  platform  constructed. 

The  distance  between  the  perches  and  a  level 
platform  should  not  be  great  enough  to  permit 
the  fowls  to  walk  on  the  platform  underneath  the 


126  Farm  Poultry 

perches.  If  a  broad  iron  shovel  with  a  tolerably 
straight  handle  is  used,  the  perches  need  not  be 
more  than  from  five  to  eight  inches  from  a  level 
platform.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the  platform 
some  distance  from  the  floor,  in  order  that  the 
fowls  may  occupy  the  floor-space  underneath  the 
platform.  This  will  permit  the  construction  of 
perches,  and,  at  the  same  time,  will  allow  the  fowls 
to  use  all  of  the  floor-space.  The  perches  may 
be  supported  by  brackets  secured  to  the  side  wall, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  44. 

Nests.- — In  the  construction  of  nests  in  poultry 
houses,  at  least  three  points  should  constantly  be 
kept  in  mind.  First,  the  nest  should  be  situated 
in  a  place  which  is  more  or  less  dark;  second,  it 
should  be  readily  accessible  to  the  fowls  from  more 
than  one  side;  and,  third,  it  should  be  constructed 
in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  readily  seen,  easily 
cleaned,  and  thoroughly  disinfected.  Since  it  is 
important  to  give  the  fowls  as  much  floor-space 
as  possible,  it  is  usually  best  to  have  the  nest  attached 
in  some  manner  to  the  side  or  end  walls  of  the  build- 
ing. In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  num- 
ber of  fowls  which  a  poultry  house  will  accommo- 
date depends  on  the  floor-space  and  air-space  which 
the  house  contains.  Anything,  therefore,  that 
unnecessarily  occupies  floor-space  will  diminish  the 
capacity  of  the  house.  Various  plans  of  arranging 
nests  have  been  adopted,  and  it  is  difficult  and 


Arrangement  of  Nests  127 

probably  impossible  to  say  which  is  the  best.  Each 
has  advantages  and  disadvantages.  A  somewhat 
simple  and  easy  plan  of  arranging  nests  when  the 
perches  are  placed  not  more  than  two  and  one- 
half  or  three  feet  from  the  floor,  is  as  follows :  Under- 
neath the  platform,  which  should  always  be  under- 
neath the  perches,  as  described  above,  the  nests 
are  placed  in  a  row  on  the  floor.  From  the  front 
edge  of  the  platform  to  the  floor,  in  front  of  the 
nests,  a  tight  board  partition  is  constructed.  This 
board  partition  is  opened  by  means  of  a  long  door, 
hinged  either  at  the  top  or  bottom.  In  either 
case  the  lower  edge  of  the  door  should  be  about 
level  with  the  top  of  the  nests.  A  small  opening 
at  one  end  of  the  door  will  admit  fowls  to  the 
nests.  This  arrangement  secures  darkness  for  the 
nests,  plenty  of  room  for  the  fowls  to  approach 
the  nests  from  two  or  three  sides,  and  the  nests 
are  readily  accessible  for  cleaning,  gathering  eggs, 
etc.  Some  of  the  disadvantages  of  this  plan  are 
that  the  nests  occupy  considerable  floor-space  and 
the  fowls  are  sometimes  inclined  to  deposit  their 
eggs  on  the  floor  back  of  the  nests.  It  is  desirable 
to  arrange  the  nests  so  that  they  may  be  approached 
from  more  than  one  side  for  the  following  reason: 
In  flocks  of  fowls  of  any  considerable  size  there  are 
usually  individuals  more  or  less  aggressive  in  char- 
acter, that  seem  to  delight  in  exercising  their  mastery 
over  others;  such  birds,  when  seeking  a  nest,  will 


128 


Farm  Poultry 


almost  invariably  drive  others  off  the  nests  rather 
than  take  equally  as  convenient  a  nest  which  is 
unoccupied.  If  the  nests  can  be  approached  from 
only  one  side,  one  hen  in  trying  to  drive  the 
other  off,  which  she  will  eventually  accomplish, 
will  force  the  occupant  to  spring  from  the  nest 


FIG.  45.    Perches  and 


sts — West  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


suddenly.  This  may  cause  the  eggs  to  be  thrown 
violently  to  one  side,  and  often  a  broken  egg  is 
the  result. 

The  vice  of  egg-eating  is  undoubtedly  largely 
caused  by  eggs  being  broken  accidentally,  or  by 
frozen  eggs.  If  the  nests  can  be  placed  in  partial 


Nests  and  Egg-eating  129 

darkness,  the  habit  of  egg-eating  should  be  reduced 
to  a  minimum.  While  it  may  not  suffice  to  cure  the 
habit  when  once  well  formed,  yet  it  should  pre- 
vent, in  a  large  measure,  the  development  of  this 
vice.  It  is  the  duty  of  those  constructing  poultry 
houses  to  arrange  them  so  that  this  vice,  together 
with  other  undesirable  features  of  poultry-keeping, 
may  be  avoided  so  far  as  possible.  Another  arrange- 
ment of  nests,  in  which  they  are  attached  to  the 
side  or  end  walls,  and  therefore  do  not  occupy 
floor-space,  is  recommended  by  many  practical 
poultry-keepers. 

It  is  important  to  arrange  the  nests  so  that 
they  may  be  readily  cleaned  and  disinfected,  for 
it  is  well  known  that  if  the  perches  and  nests  of 
the  fowls  can  be  kept  free  from  mites,  or  so-called 
summer  lice,  the  fowls  themselves  will  be  entirely 
free  from  them.  If  the  nest  boxes,  therefore,  are 
movable  and  can  be  readily  taken  out-of-doors 
for  thorough  cleaning,  it  will  be  found  somewhat 
easier  to  keep  them  entirely  free  from  these  pests 
than  if  stationary  nests  are  used,  and  it  will  cer- 
tainly be  easier  to  exterminate  them  should  they 
once  gain  a  foothold. 

Nests  of  Leghorns,  Hamburgs,  and  Minorcas 
may  be  constructed  of  boards,  6  inches  wide,  making 
boxes  8x10  inches  in  the  clear.  The  American 
breeds  and  Asiatics  should  have  somewhat  larger 
nests. 


130  Farm  Poultry 

Fine  hay  is  satisfactory  for  nest  material  and 
excelsior  answers  the  purpose  admirably.  Sea- 
grass,  so  extensively  used  in  packing  china  and 
crockery,  is  an  excellent  material.  Whatever  mate- 
rial is  used,  it  should  be  such  as  will  not  easily  stain 
the  eggs.  An  egg  when  first  laid  is  moist,  and  if 
the  nest  material  stains  or  gives  up  its  coloring 
matter  readily,  the  egg  is  likely  to  be  more  or  less 
stained,  particularly  if  it  has  a  white  shell.  If  the 
nests  are  placed  side  by  side,  the  partitions  should 
extend  two  inches  or  more  above  the  nest  material 
to  prevent  the  fowls  from  attempting  to  draw 
the  eggs  from  one  nest  to  another,  and,  in  so  doing, 
cause  the  eggs  to  roll  back  and  be  broken. 

Drinking-fountains. — It  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance that  fowls  be  supplied  with  pure  water.  This 
is  one  of  the  somewhat  difficult  problems 
that  every  poultryman  has  to  meet.  It 
is  difficult  to  keep  the  water-dishes  clean, 
particularly  when  the  fowls  are  confined 
in  the  houses,  as  they  are  during  the  severe 
winter  months.  Scratching  in 
the  litter  will  cause  more  or  less 
dirt  to  enter  the  drinking-dishes, 

,  ..  .        „         .  „      ,        FIG.  46.    A  simple  drinking- 

and  usually  such  fowls  are  fed       fountain;  a  bottle  or  jug 
soft  food  once  a  day  at  least,       used  as  a  reservoir- 
and  this  food  will  also  enter  the  drinking-dishes  to 
some    extent  when    the    fowls   drink   after  eating. 
There  are  a  number  of  patented  drinking-fountains 


Drinking-fountains 


131 


rrt 


p^  "  & 


on  the  market,  many  of  which  are  automatic  and 

keep  a  small  supply  of  water  constantly  before  the 

fowls.    Under  favorable  conditions  these  fountains 

will,  undoubtedly,  prove  very  satisfactory.    Under 

adverse  conditions,   however, 

some  of  them  have  not  given 

satisfaction,    for    the    reason 

that    they   are     difficult    to 

clean.  If  the  fountain  becomes 

tainted,  as  it   is   very  likely 

to  do  in  warm  weather,  it  is 

not  so  readily  cleaned  as  a 

simple   tin   or   earthen    dish. 

Drinking-fountains   that  are 

not  readily  cleaned  are        .x 

objectionable.       Many  r- 

automatic    fountains    are       FIG.  47.   An  improved  drinldng-fountain 
i  ,  -i  with  a  revolving  reservoir. 

constructed    on    the 

principle  of  the  student  lamp,  which  permits  a 
small  quantity  of  liquid  to  pass  from  the  reservoir 
whenever  a  bubble  of  air  is  permitted  to  enter  it. 
The  inverted  jug  or  bottle,  with  its  opening  placed 
in  a  shallow  dish,  illustrates  the  principle.  (See 
Fig.  46.)  An  improved  arrangement  is  seen  in  Fig. 
47.  The  reservoir  is  supported  between  two  uprights 
and  so  arranged  that  it  may  revolve  for  conve- 
nience in  filling. 

Another   arrangement,    which   has   given   satis- 
faction in  the  hands  of  successful  poultrymen,  may 


132 


Farm  Poultry 


be  constructed  as  follows  (Fig.  48):  An  ordinary 
shallow  milk-pan  is  placed  on  a  block  or  shallow 
box,  the  top  of  which  is  four  or  five  inches  from 
the  floor.  The  water  or  milk  to  be  drunk  by  the 
fowls  is  placed  in  this  pan.  Over  the  pan  is  placed 
a  board  cover  supported  on  pieces  of  lath  about 
eight  inches  long  nailed  to  the  cover  so  that  they 
are  about  two  inches  apart,  the  lower  ends  resting 
on  the  box  which  forms  the  support  of  the  pan. 
In  order  to  drink  from  the  pan,  it  is  necessary  for 

the  fowls  to  insert 

their  heads  be- 
tween these  pieces 
of  lath.  The  cover 
over  the  pan  and 
the  strips  of  lath 
at  the  sides  pre- 
vent the  poultry 
from  fouling  the 
water  in  any  manner  except  in  the  act  of  drinking. 
When  drinking-pans  of  this  kind  are  used,  it  is  very 
easy  to  cleanse  and  scald  them  with  hot  water  as 
occasion  demands.  This  arrangement  can  be  carried 
a  little  further  by  placing  a  pan  or,  what  would  be 
still  better,  a  long,  narrow  dish,  something  like  a  tin 
bread-tray,  on  a  low  shelf  a  few  inches  from  the  floor 
and  hinging  the  cover  to  one  side  of  the  poultry  house 
so  that  it  can  be  tipped  up  in  front  for  the  removal 
of  the  dish  or  for  filling  it  with  water.  (See  Fig.  49.) 


Fia.  48.  A  shallow  milk-pan  used  as  a 
water  basin,  and  protected  with  a  board 
cover  having  supports  of  laths. 


Drinking-fountains  and  Dust-boxes  133 

If  desired,  the  cover  may  be  so  constructed  that 
it  will  be  on  an  incline  to  prevent  fowls  from  perch- 
ing on  it. 

There  are  various  forms  of  drinking-fountains 
on  the  market  that  are  kept  in  stock  by  poultry- 
supply  houses.  Selection  may  be  made  from  these, 
or  fountains  may  be  made  from  special  designs, 


FIG.  49.  A  protected  water  basin. 

but  whatever  arrangement  is  made  for  furnishing 
water  for  the  fowls,  it  should  comply  with  these 
conditions:  (1)  The  drinking-pan  must  be  so  con- 
structed that  it  may  be  easily  and  thoroughly 
cleansed;  (2)  fowls  should  have  access  to  pure 
water  at  all  times. 

Dust-boxes. — It  is  not  only  desirable,  but  neces- 
sary, to  provide  dust-boxes  for  the  fowls  if  they 
are  to  be  kept  reasonably  free  from  body-lice. 
This  is  particularly  true  during  the  winter  months. 


134  Farm  Poultry 

During  the  summer,  if  the  fowls  have  a  more  or 
less  wide  range,  dusty  places  will  be  found  out-of- 
doors  wherein  they  may  take  dust-baths.  During 
the  late  fall,  winter  and  early  spring,  conveniences 
should  be  supplied  the  fowls  within  doors,  wherein 
they  may  wallow  in  the  dust.  A  comparatively 
small  box  will  answer  for  a  flock  of  a  dozen  or 


FIG.  50.   Combined  house  and  scratching-shed,  an  excellent  plan. 
Rhode  Island  Agricultural  College. 

twenty  hens  if  the  attendant  will  see  that  the  box 
is  kept  well  filled  with  dry  dust  and  free  from  litter 
and  other  coarse  material.  If  these  boxes  can 
be  so  placed  that  they  receive  some  sunshine  on 
bright  days  it  will  be  found  easier  to  keep  the 
dust  dry,  and  fowls  prefer  them  so  located  rather 
than  in  some  dark  corner.  Fine  road  dust  pro- 
cured during  the  hot,  dry  weather  of  July  and 
August  from  a  much  traveled  highway  has  no 
superior  for  this  purpose.  Probably  there  is  no 


Dust-boxes  and  Insecticides  135 

way  in  which  the  poultryman  can  better  combat 
the  body-lice  than  by  providing  dust-boxes  for 
his  fowls. 

Dust-boxes  are  objectionable  because  their  use 
makes  the  houses  so  dusty  and  dirty.  If  space 
will  permit,  a  special  room  or  closed  dust-bath  with 
window  facing  the  south  can  easily  be  constructed, 
and  will  keep  the  house  comparatively  free  from 
dust,  and  the  bath  will  be  kept  free  from  the  litter 
used  in  the  poultry  house. 

It  is  true  that  the  fowls  may  be  kept  compara- 
tively free  from  these  pests  by  the  occasional  use 
of  insecticides  dusted  thoroughly  among  the  feathers 
of  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  but  as  this  method 
necessitates  the  handling  of  each  bird  several  times 
during  the  season,  most  farmers  will  prefer  to  have 
the  fowls  use  the  dust-bath.  If  an  insecticide,  as 
powdered  sulfur  or  insect  powder,  is  used,  it  should 
be  dusted  through  the  feathers  next  to  the  skin, 
preferably  in  the  evening  when  the  fowls  are  quiet 
and  on  the  perches,  in  order  that  the  material  may 
remain  in  the  feathers  for  several  hours. 

Yards  and  parks. — The  question  of  confining 
fowls  is  perhaps  somewhat  undecided  in  the  minds 
of  many  farmers.  Because  the  fowls  of  a  compara- 
tively small  flock,  when  given  their  liberty  or  the 
run  of  the  farm,  thrive  well  and  produce  many  eggs 
with  very  little  attention  on  the  part  of  the  owner, 
it  should  not  be  inferred  that  large  flocks  will  prove 


136  Farm  Poultry 

equally  satisfactory  under  similar  conditions.  While 
a  few  fowls  may  be  given  the  run  of  the  farm  with- 
out causing  very  much  annoyance,  large  flocks 
would  be  objectionable  for  many  reasons. 

Each  individual  must  decide  for  himself  whether 
he  will  permit  his  fowls  to  have  the  run  of  the  farm, 
or  whether  he  will  confine  them  in  pens  or  yards. 
Generally  speaking,  it  is  far  better  to  confine  the 


Fia.  51.  Poultry  house  and  yard. 
Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

fowls  within  suitable  inclosures.  The  owner  then 
has  control  of  the  conditions  and  is  more  nearly 
master  of  the  situation  than  it  is  possible  for  him 
to  be  when  his  fowls  are  given  full  liberty.  Those 
who  provide  yards  or  runs  for  the  fowls  do  not  all 
agree  as  to  the  best  method.  There  are  two  sys- 
tems in  use,  each  possessing  its  own  advantages, 
and  each  having  warm  adherents.  One  system  or 
plan  provides  comparatively  small  areas  for  small-  or 


Yards   and  Parks  137 

medium-sized  flocks;  the  other  fences  more  extended 
areas  for  large  flocks  or  masses.  It  is  undoubtedly 
best  for  each  beginner  to  learn  what  he  can  of  the 
experience  of  others  and  then  to  select  the  plan  that 
best  meets  his  own,  requirements. 

Undoubtedly  there  is  no  best  method  of  con- 
structing yards  or  runs  for  fowls.  What  may  answer 
the  purpose  admirably  for  one  would  be  quite 
unsuited  to  the  conditions  of  another.  The  yards 
should  be  so  constructed  that  they  best  meet  the 
natural  as  well  as  the  artificial  conditions  under 
which  the  fowls  are  to  be  kept.  Figs.  52  and  53 
illustrate  a  way  of  constructing  poultry  houses 
and  adjoining  yards  for  moderate -sized  flocks. 
This  system  has  been  used  satisfactorily  by  success- 
ful poultrymen  on  comparatively  level  land.  It 
is  particularly  advantageous  when  small  yards 
are  to  be  used  that  will  require  thorough  culti- 
vation. Whatever  may  be  the  form  or  size  of  the 
yard,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  first 
requisite  is  cleanliness,  that  part  of  the  yard  nearest 
the  poultry  house  undoubtedly  requiring  frequent 
cultivation.  The  ideal  condition  is  to  have  one 
part  of  the  yard  in  permanent  grass  and  another 
part  well  cultivated.  If  a  rocky  or  rough  piece  of 
land,  more  or  less  woody,  is  near  at  hand,  there  is 
no  reason  why  this  may  not  profitably  form  a  part 
of  the  poultry  run  or  yard.  Poultry  yards  accom- 
modating fifty  hens  should  inclose  about  sixteen 


138  'Farm  Poultry 

square  rods.  If  fifty  fowls  are  kept  confined  in  the 
house  and  yard  throughout  the  year,  as  described 
above,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  a  considerable 
part  of  the  yard  thoroughly  cultivated  in  order  to 
keep  it  clean. 

The  expense  of  constructing  and  maintaining 
poultry  fences  is  considerable,  and  the  plan  to 
be  preferred  is  the  one  that  will  give  the  greatest 
satisfaction  with  the  least  amount  of  fence. 

If  the"  yards  are  to  be  cultivated,  it  will  be  found 
advantageous  to  have  them  long  and  compara- 
tively narrow.  A  yard  two  rods  wide  and  eight 
rods  long  is  convenient  to  cultivate,  and  is  very 
satisfactory  for  other  reasons.  As  it  is  found  most 
convenient  to  have  several  pens  in  one  house,  it 
is  therefore  convenient  to  have  several  poultry 
yards  side  by  side,  one  fence  forming  the  boundary 
of  two  yards.  (See  Fig.  28.)  Provision  should  be 
made  for  two-horse  cultivation,  for  sometimes 
yards  will  need  to  be  plowed.  Whether  the  fences 
be  entirely  wood  or  of  wire  netting,  they  should  not 
be  less  than  seven  feet  high,  if  egg  breeds  are  to  be 
confined.  In  either  case,  it  is  well  to  have  a  wide 
board  placed  at  the  bottom.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable 
to  confine  comparatively  small  chickens  in  these 
yards.  Boards  at  least  a  foot  wide  at  the  bottom 
will  be  very  satisfactory,  if  the  remainder  of  the 
fence  is  constructed  of  the  ordinary  two-inch  mesh 
poultry  netting.  Should  the  boards  be  omitted, 


Yards   and  Shade   Trees 


139 


the  lower  part  of  the  fence  should  be  formed  of 
netting  having  a  mesh  smaller  than  two  inches. 
It  is  undoubtedly  best  to  provide  some  shade  for 
the  fowls.  For  this  purpose  fruit  trees  have  given 


FIG.  52. 


FIG.  53. 
Poultry  houses  and  yards  of  C.  H.  Wyckoff,  Groton,  N.  Y. 

entire  satisfaction.  Pium  trees  are  especially  recom- 
mended for  poultry  yards.  One  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  experienced  in  raising  plums  is  caused 
by  the  attacks  of  the  curculio.  It  has  been  found 
by  trial  that  plums  grown  within  the  poultry  yard 


140  Farm  Poultry 

are  much  less  liable  to  injury  by  this  insect  than 
those  grown  under  similiar  conditions  outside  of 
the  yards.  If  several  poultry  yards  are  arranged 
side  by  side,  the  owner  may  provide  for  a  plum 
orchard  by  planting  a  row  of  plum  trees  through 
the  middle  of  each  yard.  The  following  varieties 
of  plums  have  been  especially  recommended  for 
this  purpose: 

Lombard  Burbank 

Bradshaw  Coe  Golden  Drop 

Peter  Yellow  Gage 

There  is  no  reason  why  an  apple  orchard  may 
not  form  a  poultry  yard  to  good  advantage.  Par- 
ticularly would  this  be  true  if  the  orchard  were 
kept  under  thorough  cultivation,  a  practice  which  is 
now  so  strongly  recommended  by  the  most  advanced 
orchardists.  The  whole  orchard  may  be  inclosed 
with  the  poultry  fence  and  the  fowls  given  the 
run  of  it.  If  thought  advisable,  simple,,  temporary 
yards  may  be  provided  for  the  various  flocks  during 
a  part  of  the  year,  when  it  is  desired  to  keep  them 
separate.  At  other  times  all  of  the  flocks  may  be 
given  the  run  of  the  entire  orchard. 

When  the  fowls  have  once  become  accustomed 
to  their  house  or  home,  they  will  give  the  owner 
very  little  trouble  by  perching  elsewhere,  even 
though  they  be  given  the  opportunity  to  do  so. 
Whenever  small  yards  are  used,  it  will  be  found 
desirable  to  place  the  young  birds  or  pullets  in 


Yards  and  Fences 


141 


their  permanent  yards,  if  possible  to  do  so.  Mature 
fowls,  when  moved  from  one  pen  to  another,  are 
more  likely  to  fly  over  the  enclosure  than  if  kept 
throughout  the  season  in  the  yard  they  have  learned 
to  recognize  as  home.  It  has  frequently  been  noticed 
that  Leghorn  and  Minorca  hens  will  remain  peace- 
ably in  the  yard  in  which  they  have  been  reared, 
but  if  moved  to  other  yards  will  give  the  owner 


FIG.  54.   Poultry  houses  and  yards. 
West  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

more  or  less  trouble  by  flying  over  the  fences, 
although  the  latter  may  be  as  high  as  seven 
feet. 

In  latitudes  where  it  is  not  necessary  to  provide 
warm  houses  for  protection  against  freezing,  many 
small  portable  houses  in  a  field  of  considerable 
size  are  preferred  to  more  pretentious  stationary 
houses  with  permanent  yards.  It  is  true  that  the 
labor  of  the  attendant  in  feeding  is  somewhat 
increased,  but  considerable  labor  is  saved  in  clean- 
ing and  cultivating  the  land  by  merely  moving  the 


142  Farm  Poultry 

buildings  a  short  distance.  The  houses  are  usually 
constructed  on  rude  and  inexpensive  runners, 
and  are  moved  from  place  to  place  by  means  of 
horses.  Small,  light  houses,  that  are  used  chiefly 
for  shelters  and  roosting  places,  can  be  moved 
readily  short  distances  by  one  or  two  horses  if 
suitable  provision  be  made  for  such  moving  when 
the  houses  are  constructed.  Many  poultrymen 
prefer  this  method,  that  they  may  avoid  cultivating 
the  yards  and  yet  secure  fresh,  clean  runs  for  their 
fowls. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   IMPROVEMENT  AND  BREEDING    OF  FOWLS 

As  a  dairyman  would  make  a  serious  mistake 
in  selecting  cattle  for  his  dairy  if  he  should  draw 
from  any  but  the  noted  dairy  breeds,  so  the  poul- 
tryman  or  farmer  would  make  an  equally  serious 
mistake  if  fowls  were  chosen  that  were  not  specially 
adapted  to  his  purposes.  The  ultimate  success  of 
a  business  depends  largely  on  the  skill  of  the  manager 
in  selecting  the  proper  agents  or  machines  to  do  the 
work.  If  inferior  agents  are  used  to  produce  a 
merchantable  article,  either  the  article  produced 
is  not  first-class  or  the  cost  of  production  is  not 
.reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  either  case  the  producer  is 
not  able  to  compete  successfully  with  those  who 
have  a  better  equipment. 

SELECTION 

The  importance  of  choosing  a  suitable  breed 
or  variety  for  a  special  purpose  is  likely  to  be  under- 
estimated. Apparently  the  same  importance  is 
not  given  to  differences  between  the  useful  breeds 
of  fowls  that  is  recognized  between  the  different 

(143) 


144  Farm  Poultry 

breeds  of  cattle  and  horses.  In  reality,  as  great 
differences  exist.  The  importance  of  a  proper 
selection  is  still  further  emphasized  when  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  fowls  are  to  be  kept  are 
taken  into  consideration.  Some  fowls  will  thrive 
fairly  well  under  conditions  that  would  not  prove 
adequate  for  the  profitable  maintenance  of  others. 
Too  often  a  particular  variety  is  selected  for  farm 
use  because  some  fine-looking  or  profitable  flock 
has  beeii  seen  which  has  created  a  desire  in  the  mind 
of  the  visitor  to  possess  a  similar  flock.  This  is 
sometimes  done  without  considering  the  special 
purposes  for  which  these  fowls  are  to  be  kept,  and 
perhaps  without  taking  into  account  the  conditions 
under  which  the  flock  is  to  be  maintained,  even 
though  these  conditions  differ  materially  from  those 
under  which  the  admired  flock  existed. 

The  great  variety  of  fowls  now  bred  in  this 
country  offers  to  the  poultryman  and  farmer  a 
wide  field  for  selection.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  of  this  great  variety  all  are  not  equally  well 
adapted  to  various  purposes  of  utility.  While  a 
certain  breed  may  give  entire  satisfaction  in  the 
hands  of  one  poultry-keeper,  another  may  find 
these  fowls  quite  unsatisfactory  because  he  is  unable 
to  give  them  the  necessary  care  and  to  provide  the 
conditions  under  which  they  thrive  best.  It  may 
happen,  therefore,  that  under  a  somewhat  careless 
management  the  most  noted  egg-breeds  may  not 


Selecting  for  Improvement  145 

prove  the.  most  satisfactory  for  egg  production. 
The  capabilities  of  the  fowls  and  the  conditions 
under  which  they  are  to  be  kept  should  both  be 
taken  into  consideration  before  fowls  are  selected 
for  a  special  purpose. 

The  wide-awake,  progressive  poultryman  will 
ever  be  watchful  to  improve  his  fowls  for  the  pur- 
pose in  view,  after  procuring  those  that  seem  best 
adapted  to  his  wants.  He  must  not  be  content  with 
merely  choosing  a  proper  flock.  Selection  should 
go  on  year  after  year,  and  the  fowls  be  continually 
improved  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  kept, 
and  under  the  existing  conditions. 

Selecting  eggs. — In  the  attempt  to  still  further 
increase  the  productiveness  of  his  flock  it  will  be 
well  for  the  poultryman  to  study  carefully,  or  at 
least  as  best  he  can,  the  accomplishments  that  have 
already  been  achieved  along  the  lines  of  increased 
egg  production  and  the  manner  in  which  these 
improvements  have  been  brought  about. 

It  will  not  be  questioned  that  the  most  prolific 
fowls  of  today  are,  as  egg  producers,  greatly  superior 
to  the  wild  fowls  from  which  they  have  descended. 
And  also  that  marked  improvement  has  been  made 
well  within  the  memory  and  even  practice  of  poul- 
trymen  who  are  now  maintaining  flocks  of  fowls 
for  market  products.  Lessons  drawn  from  these 
achievements  cannot  fail  to  be  of  value  to  one 
who  aims  to  still  further  improve  the  medium  by 


146  Farm  Poultry 

means  of  which  ordinary  commercial  feed  is  trans- 
formed into  desirable  poultry  products.  Whatever 
may  be  learned  from  these  improvements  will  surely 
have  the  important  quality  of  being  practical. 
Imitators  of  the  successful  are  following  a  safe 
guide,  even  though  they  may  seem  to  be  "making 
haste  slowly. " 

Some  of  the  noted,  if  not  the  most  noted  breeders 
and  improvers  of  fowls  for  egg  production,  have  laid 
great  stress  on  egg  selection.  They  were  careful  to 
select  the  best  layers  of  the  pullet  year  for  breeders, 
and  from  these  hens  eggs  were  selected  for  hatching. 
That  is,  year-old  hens,  that  were  used  for  the  main- 
tenance and  improvement  of  the  flocks,  were  the 
best  layers  during  their  pullet  year.  This  practice 
carefully  pursued  year  after  year,  by  these  poultry- 
men,  resulted  in  the  steady  improvement  of  the 
fowls  for  egg  production. 

Without  doubt  all  of  the  improvers  who  have 
achieved  success  have  been  skilful  feeders  and  also 
have  provided  congenial  homes  for  their  fowls. 
It  will  be  impossible  to  say  just  how  much  of  the 
improvement  has  been  due  to  egg  selection,  to  feed, 
to  environment,  and  how  much  to  the  influence  of 
the  males;  but  surely  the  noted  breeders  who  have 
secured  marked  improvement  in  egg  production 
have  laid  much  stress  on  egg  selection. 

Whenever  it  is  convenient  to  do  so,  a  few  of 
the  best-laying  hens  should  be  placed  by  them- 


Selecting  for   Vigor  147 

selves  in  order  that  their  eggg  alone  may  be  used 
for  hatching.  If  it  is  impossible  to  select  fowls 
for  breeding  purposes  from  the  records  of  egg. pro- 
duction, which  is  the  true  test  of  the  laying  hen, 
the  owner  must  resort  to  other  methods.  One  of 
the  best  substitutes  for  actual  performance  undoubt- 
edly is  to  select  for  strength  and  vigor  of  constitu- 
tion. It  is  well  understood  that  if  the  animal  machine 
is  not  strong  it  will  be  unable  to  perform  the  greatest 
service.  The  best  layers  are  strong,  large-bodied, 
vigorous  fowls.  They  are  known  to  have  strong 
constitutions. 

If  breeders  are  to  select  for  vigor,  they  can  do 
no  better,  perhaps,  than  to  make  the  choice  at  the 
molting  period.  Strong,  vigorous  fowls  pass  through 
the  molting  period  very  much  more  rapidly  than 
do  those  having  a  weak  constitution.  The  robust 
hen  that  lays  a  large  number  of  eggs  during  the  year 
will  pass  through  the  molting  period  quickly,  and 
will  hardly  stop  laying,  while  the  one  having  a  weak 
constitution  will  be  a  long  time  in  producing  a  new 
coat  of  feathers,  and  will  not  lay  for  many  weeks. 
The  experienced  poultryman,  therefore,  finds  this 
period  in  the  life  of  the  fowl  a  most  excellent  one 
in  which  to  make  his  selection.  The  fact  that  the 
bird  with  a  strong  constitution  is  the  most  profitable 
for  egg  production  may  explain  why  the  fowls  of 
poultrymen  who  make  a  specialty  of  egg  production 
average  larger  than  the  fowls  of  those  who  breed 


148  Farm  Poultry 

for  exhibition.  Almost  without  exception,  the  aver- 
age size  of  fowls  of  flocks  specially  noted  for  egg  lay- 
ing is  considerably  larger  than  the  average  size  of 
fowls  of  the  pure-bred  stock  of  that  breed.  As  a 
good-sized  body  and  a  deep  and  broad  breast  are 
indicative  of  a  strong  constitution,  so  are  they  the 
requisites  of  a  good  laying  hen. 

If  one  is  compelled  to  make  a  selection  for  egg 
production  solely  from  the  general  conformation 
or  appearance  of  the  fowl,  he  should  select  deep, 
long-bodied  birds.  Those  having  a  short  underline, 
circular  in  outline,  should  be  discarded.  The  feeding 
capacity  of  the  hen  is  important,  for  those  that  are 
able  to  digest  and  assimilate  large  quantities  of 
food  are  vigorous  fowls  and  consequently  can  pro- 
duce eggs  in  abundance. 

At  present  there  is  a  wide  divergence  of  opinion 
as  to  the  manner  in  which  improvement  has  been 
brought  about.  Some  of  the  experimenters  hold  that 
egg  production  in  the  female  ancestry  is  not  a  potent 
factor  in  improvement. 

*"That  the  egg  record  of  an  individual  hen 
gives  no  definite  indication  whatever  as  to  what  the 
probable  laying  of  her  daughter  will  be.  Exami- 
nation of  hundreds  of  pedigree  records  leaves  no 
doubt  as  to  the  truth  of  this  fact.  Individual  birds 
with  high  egg  records  are  as  likely  as  not  to  produce 
daughters  that  make  poor  egg  records,  and  vice 

*Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  192. 


Selecting  for  Egg  Production  149 

versa.  From  the  laying  record  of  an  individual  hen 
it  is  quite  impossible  for  any  one  to  tell  whether 
its  progeny  will  be  good  layers  or  poor  layers.'7 

However,  the  more  conservative  breeders  are 
still  pursuing  the  methods  that  have  been  pro- 
ductive of  greatest  good  in  the  past. 

Americans  look  very  much  closer  to  the  color 
and  feather  markings  than  do  the  English.  So  far 
as  meat  and  egg  production  are  concerned,  the 
English,  without  doubt,  have  the  advantage.  As 
shown  in  a  previous  chapter,  it  is  undoubtedly  much 
more  difficult  to  develop  two  unrelated  character- 
istics to  the  highest  state  of  perfection  than  to 
develop  a  single  characteristic.  The  Englishman, 
therefore,  who  seeks  egg  production  without  special 
regard  to  the  color  of  the  plumage  finds  it  easier 
to  reach  the  highest  state  of  perfection  than  does  the 
American  who  desires  to  breed  fowls  for  egg  pro- 
duction and,  at  the  same  time,  have  them  true 
to  feather. 

If  one  must  select  fowls  for  exhibition  purposes 
and  breed  them  for  fancy  points,  it  will  undoubtedly 
be  best  to  choose  some  solid-colored  breed  or  va- 
riety whose  tendency  to  depart  from  the  standard 
color  is  not  strong.  It  should  not  be  inferred  that 
all  solid-colored  fowls  are  easy  to  breed  true  to  color; 
in  fact,  some  of  the  so-called  solid  colors,  notably 
the  buffs,  are  the  most  difficult  to  breed  to  perfection. 

The  question  of  securing  fertile  eggs  for  incu- 


150  Farm  Poultry 

bation  is  one  that  always  gives  breeders  more  or 
less  concern.  Some  breeders  are  more  successful 
than  others  in  securing,  fertile  eggs,  and,  appar- 
ently, all  breeders  are  more  successful  during  some 
seasons  than  others.  Some  breeds  of  fowls  are 
noted  for  producing  fertile  eggs,  while  others  are 
generally  recognized  as  inferior  in  this  respect. 
The  freedom  given  the  fowls  of  a  flock,  the  vigor 
of  the  individuals,  and  the  number  of  males,  very 
largely  ^determine  the  fertility.  Pullets'  eggs  are 
generally  not  selected  for  hatching.  It  is  thought 
that  they  are  not  so  likely  to  be  fertile,  and  will 
not  produce  so  strong  and  vigorous  chickens  as 
hens'  eggs. 

Those  who  have  had  experience  in  operating 
incubators  know  that  not  all  fertile  eggs  will  hatch. 
There  seem  to  be  all  grades  of  fertility,  from  the  egg 
having  a  vigorous  germ  that  will  produce  a  strong, 
healthy  chicken,  to  that  having  a  weak  germ  and 
is  practically  an  infertile  egg.  As  the  two  extremes 
are  united  by  various  intermediate  grades,  it  is 
impossible  to  draw  a  definite  line  of  separation 
which  shall  divide  the  fertile  from  the  infertile  ones. 

Fresh  eggs  are  to  be  preferred  for  hatching, 
although  good  hatches  from  eggs  that  were  kept 
several  weeks  are  reported.  Eggs  are  sometimes 
sent  long  distances  and  still  retain  their  vitality 
sufficiently  to  produce  a  good  number  of  strong 
chicks.  The  following  is  quoted  from  an  experi- 


Fertility  of  Eggs  151 

ment  station  publication:*  " Where  the  incubator 
is  placed  in  a  room  whose  temperature  is  reason- 
ably even  and  is  properly  managed,  a  high  percentage 
of  hatch  may  be  expected  only  (a)  when  the  hens 
have  plenty  of  exercise,  (6)  when  the  eggs  are 
freshly  laid." 

After  the  male  is  removed,  the  eggs  are  thought 
to  be  fertile  for  a  few  days, — "from  four  to  four- 
teen days"  is  given  by  some  authors.  The  following 
gives  the  results  of  definite  observations  :f  "On  the 
farm  of  the  Ohio  State  University,  40  Leghorn  hens 
which  had  previously  been  kept  without  males 
were  placed  in  pens  with  the  male  birds  February 
18,  and  the  percentage  of  fertile  eggs  observed  for 
nine  days  after  mating.  This  increased  regularly 
from  0,  on  the  day  of  mating,  to  95  per  cent  on  the 
eighth  day  after  mating.  July  1  the  males  were 
removed  from  the  pens.  The  fertility  of  the  eggs 
was  apparently  not  materially  affected  until  the 
twelfth  day  after  removing  the  roosters.  .  .  . 
Unfortunately  the  eggs  were  saved  only  fifteen  days, 
and  hence  it  is  not  shown  how  long  hens  must  be 
removed  from  the  male  before  all  the  eggs  become 
infertile." 

For  the  greatest  production  of  eggs,  males  are 
not  required  except  for  the  breeding-pen.  Many 
poultrymen  who  have  made  a  speciality  of  egg 

*Bulletin  No.  158,  Michigan  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
fAgricultural  Student  I  (1894),  in  Experiment  Station  Record. 


152  Farm  Poultry 

production  and  have  won  for  themselves  a  repu- 
tation in  this  direction,  have  found  by  experience 
that  males  are  of  no  use  in  the  laying-pen,  and  are 
often  a  positive  injury  when  eggs  for  food  only  are 
desired.  Tests  that  have  been  made  at  experiment 
stations  to  determine  the  influence  of  males  on  egg 
production  tend  to  show  that  the  practice  of  poul- 
trymen  in  excluding  males  is  most  advantageous. 
The  following  paragraph  is  taken  from  an  experiment 
station  bulletin:* 

"A  pen  of  pullets  kept  without  a  male  produced 
eggs  at  about  30  per  cent  less  cost  than  an  exactly 
similar  pen  with  which  a  cockerel  was  kept.  .  .  . 
In  each  of  the  two  pens  without  male  birds  some 
pullets  had  begun  to  lay  from  one  to  two  months 
earlier  than  any  in  the  corresponding  pens  in  which 
male  birds  were  kept." 

BREEDING 

Heredity. — Since  the  earliest  times  of  which 
any  authentic  records  have  been  preserved,  owners 
of  live  stock  have  made  attempts  to  improve  the 
animals  under  their  charge  by  the  art  of  breed- 
ing. Accounts  state  that  the  ancients  recognized 
the  principle  in  breeding  that  "like  begets  like," 
and  depended  on  it  quite  as  much  as  on  any  other 
principle.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  the  poul- 

*Bulletin  No.  57,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Transmission   of  Characters  153 

tryman  and  stock  owner  depend  for  the  perpetu- 
ation of  species,  breeds  and  varieties.  In  this 
principle  is  recognized  the  law  which,  within  cer- 
tain limits,  makes  offspring  like  their  parents.  The 
development  of  this  theory  no  doubt  came  from  a 
close  observation  of  domesticated  animals.  Had 
only  wild  animals  been  observed,  it  is  likely  that 
the  similarity  of  offspring  to  parents  would  have 


FIG.  55.   Breeding  and  exhibition  house  and  runs — Rhode  Island 
Agricultural  College. 

been  taken  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  what  is 
now  known  as  the  law  of  heredity  would  have 
been  studied  comparatively  little. 

Poultry-breeders  recognize  the  law  that  off- 
spring resemble  their  parents  within  certain  limits, 
and  depend  upon  this  law  more  than  upon  any 
other  as  the  foundation  upon  which  the  improve- 
ment by  breeding  depends.  If  it  were  not  for  the  law 
of  heredity,  selection  would  be  practically  of  no 
value.  If  strong,  heartyr  vigorous  parents,  which 


154  Farm  Poultry 

are  noted  for  their  useful  qualities,  were  unable 
to  transmit  their  desirable  traits,  it  might  be 
quite  as  profitable  to  breed  from  the  most  use- 
less of  animals.  In  other  words,  the  value  of  selec- 
tion depends  upon  the  ability  of  the  parent  to 
impress  its  own  characteristics  upon  its  offspring. 
That  characteristics  are  transmitted  to  a  certainty, 
within  certain  limits,  is  evident  to  all.  Were  this 
not  true  there  would  be  no  continuity  of  species, 
and  plants  and  animals  would  not  "  bring  forth  after 
their  kind."  A  description  of  one  typical  Clydesdale 
horse  will  apply  to  all  Clydesdales. 

Variation. — It  has  long  been  recognized  that 
there  is  a  tendency  to  vary  within  certain  limits, 
and  that  this  tendency  is  always  present  in  all 
classes  of  animals,  whether  wild  or  domesticated. 
The  fact  that  wild  birds  and  animals  possess  suffi- 
cient individuality  to  make  them  readily  recognizable 
by  each  other  is  adequate  proof  that  these  animals 
are  not  precisely  alike  in  all  respects.  We  readily 
distinguish  the  differences  between  individual  mem- 
bers of  our  herds  and  flocks,  although  all  members 
of  a  flock  or  herd  may  have  sprung  from  the  mating 
of  two  individuals,  and  therefore  have  the  same 
lineage.  It  is  more  difficult  to  observe  the  differ- 
ences in  wild  birds  and  animals,  yet  such  differences 
exist  sufficiently  to  show  that  the  law  of  variation  is 
universal  and  constant  in  its  action.  It  has  been  said 
that  "no  two  animals  are  exactly  alike  in  all  respects." 


Improvement  through  Variation  155 

The  tendency  to  vary  is  transmitted  from  pa- 
rents to  progeny  in  the  same  way  that  other  pecu- 
liarities are  transmitted.  This  has  often  been  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  the  improvement  of  fowls, 
mammals  and  plants.  Breeders  who  are  trying 
to  improve  their  stock  are  continually  endeavoring 
to  bring  the  law  of  heredity  into  force  so  far  as 
desirable  characteristics  are  concerned,  and  as 
continually  striving  to  prevent  the  operation  of 
the  law  so  far  as  undesirable  characteristics  are 
concerned. 

The  fact  that  animals  vary  permits  of  an  indi- 
vidual being  an  improvement  on  its  parents.  If 
this  individual  is  allowed  to  transmit  its  good  char- 
acteristics, improvement  may  be  attained.  With- 
out progressive  variation  breeders  could  not  secure 
improvement.  Probably  all  they  could  do  would 
be  to  prevent  deterioration. 

If  a  breeder  is  trying  to  improve  his .  flock,  he 
looks  closely  for  those  individuals  that  show  the 
greatest  tendency  to  vary.  These  individuals  he 
selects  for  breeding  stock.  He  finds  that  their 
young  vary  considerably.  They  do  not  closely 
resemble  each  other,  nor  do  they  closely  resemble 
their  parents.  If  an  abundance  of  good  food  and 
congenial  surroundings  be  provided,  he  may  expect, 
in  the  course  of  a  few  generations,  that  some  indi- 
viduals will  show  a  marked  tendency  to  vary  in 
the  direction  of  improvement.  By  judicious  mating, 


156 


Farm  Poultry 


some  or  all  of  the  desired  improvements  may  be 
transmitted  and  rendered  permanent.  The  improve- 
ment of  breeds  consists  essentially  in  fixing  the 
desired  variations. 

Poultrymen  usually .  look  to  the  male  for  the 
greatest  tendency  to  vary.*  Consequently  in  many 
improvements  and  in  the  development  of  many 
new  breeds  the  male  leads.  As  a  rule,  the  males 


FIG.  56.    An  inclosed  scratching-shed,  an  excellent  plan — Rhode 
Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

of  a  breed  or  variety  differ  more  from  one  another 
than  the  females  differ  from  each  other.  The  young 
more  nearly  resemble  the  female  than  they  do  the 
male.  It  is  also  observed  that  the  organs  most 
highly  developed  in  the  male  differ  more  than  do 
the  organs  which  are  most  highly  developed  in  the 
female, — that  is,  the  comb,  wattles,  and  tail,  which 
are  most  highly  developed  in  the  male,  differ  more 

""'Heredity,"  by  Wm.  H.  Brooks. 


In-and-in-breeding  157 

than  those  parts  which  are  most  highly  developed 
in  the  female.  The  improvement  of  domesticated 
fowls  depends  upon  the  transmission  of  desired 
characteristics  which  have  been  produced  through 
the  action  of  this  law  or  fact  of  variation. 

In-and-in-breeding. — This  term  is  often  used 
in  a  rather  loose  sense  to  indicate  the  breeding 
together  of  animals  which  are  more  or  less  closely 
related.  It  is  generally  used,  however,  to  indicate 
the  breeding  together  of  animals  that  are  closely 
related  for  several  successive  generations;  and  in 
this  sense  it  is  used  in  this  discussion.  As  breeders 
have  not  agreed  on  an  exact  definition  of  in-and-in- 
breeding,  there  is  a  considerable  difference  of  opin- 
ion as  to  just  what  the  term  implies.  Some  breeders 
hold  that  the  term  implies  only  the  mating  of  animals 
of  the  closest  relationship,  while  others  strenuously 
maintain  that  more  distant  relationship  should  be 
included.  It  is  held  by  some  that  breeding  together 
animals  which  have  a  more  distant  degree  of  relation- 
ship than  that  known  in  the  human  family  as  aunt 
and  nephew  or  uncle  and  niece,  should  not  be  recog- 
nized as  coming  within  the  meaning  of  this  term. 
On  the  other  hand,  others  are  emphatic  in  including 
more  remote  relationship. 

In-and-in-breeding  has  played  a  most  important 
part  in  the  formation  of  breeds  and  also  in  the 
improvement  of  breeds  that  were  well  established. 
As  variation  and  selection  enable  the  breeder  to 


158  Farm  Poultry 

produce  individuals  of  superior  merit,  he  will 
naturally  try  to  perpetuate  this  superiority  and  to 
reap  the  advantages  of  it  through  successive  gene- 
rations in  his  herd  or  flock.  This  has  been  made 
possible  through  in-and-in-breeding.  Almost  with- 
out exception  marked  improvement  is  first  noted 
in  one  or  two  animals.  If  the  progeny  of  these 
animals  are  bred  to  each  other  or  to  one  of  their 
parents,  the  young  resulting  from  this  mating  will 
contain  a  much  larger  percentage  of  the  "blood" 
of  the  animal  in  which  the  improvement  was  noted 
than  could  be  obtained  in  any  other  way.  Con- 
sequently the  chances  that  the  improvement  will 
be  transmitted  are  considerably  enhanced. 

In  other  words,  in-and-in-breeding  enables  the 
breeder  to  accumulate  or  "pile  up"  the  blood  of 
a  superior  animal  in  the  descendants  of  this  valu- 
able individual.  To  make  use  of  an  illustration, 
it  may  be  supposed  that  A  and  B  represent  two 
animals  of  the  same  breed  and  that  A  is  of  superior 
merit.  If  these  animals  are  mated,  the  blood  of 
the  progeny  will  be  represented  by  one-half  A  and 
one-half  B.  If  A  be  bred  to  one  of  the  progeny,  the 
blood  of  the  offspring  of  the  last  union  will  be  repre- 
sented by  three-fourths  A  and  one-fourth  B.  This 
practice  may  be  repeated  in  succeeding  generations 
and  would  be  accepted  by  all  as  in-and-in-breeding. 
As  the  percentage  of  blood  is  increased  the  improve- 
ment is  more  likely  to  be  perpetuated. 


Benefits  and  Dangers  of  in-and-in-breeding      159 

While  in-and-in-breeding  serves  a  most  useful 
purpose,  under  certain  conditions,  it  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  it  may  also  cause  deterioration  in 
various  ways.  A  commonly  accepted  belief  is,  that 
the  practice  of  in-and-in-breeding  may  result  in  a 
reduced  constitution,  may  weaken  the  mental  vigor, 
reduce  the  size  of  the  individuals  and  make  them 
less  prolific.  Many  instances  might  be  cited  to  show 
that  any  one  or  all  of  these  evils  may  accrue  from 
in-and-in-breeding,  and  it  is  also  true  that  any  one 
or  all  of  these  evils  will  not  be  produced  to  a  cer- 
tainty by  this  practice. 

It  is  recognized  that  both  good  and  evil  results 
may  follow  the  practice  of  in-breeding,  but  it  is 
not  generally  accepted  that  the  good  or  evil  results 
are  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  relationship 
between  the  animals  mated.  If  in-breeding  is  to  be 
practised,  the  degree  of  relationship  should  not  be 
the  determining  factor.  A  more  rational  selection 
is  based  on  the  individual  merits  of  the  animals  to  be 
mated.  When  related  individuals  are  to  be  bred 
together,  the  selection  should  be  made  on  the  suita- 
bility of  the  animals  to  each  other  and  not  wholly 
on  the  degree  of  relationship. 

The  safety  with  which  in-and-in-breeding  may 
be  practised  will  depend  largely  on  the  skill  that 
is  used  in  selecting  the  related  animals  that  are 
to  be  mated,  and  on  the  extent  to  which  the  practice 
is  carried.  The  skilful  breeder  will  be  able  to  derive 


160  Farm  Poultry 

many  benefits,  and  will  cease  the  practice  before 
positive  injuries  accrue.  It  may  safely  be  asserted, 
that  promiscuous  or  indiscriminate  in-and-in-breed- 
ing should  not  be  practised. 

Farmers  sometimes  select  from  their  young 
fowls  the  best  cockerel  to  head  the  flock  the  next 
year,  and  hold  that  as  long  as  they  are  breeding 
from  their  best  stock,  improvement  should  follow. 
In  so  doing,  they  perhaps  forget  that  the  weaknesses 
are  moredikely  to  be  multiplied  in  the  progeny  than 
the  desired  characteristics. 

Anything  like  general  or  flock  in-and-in-breeding 
should  not  be  attempted;  neither  should  in-and-in- 
breeding  be  practised  by  any  except  careful  and 
keen  observers  who  have  a  good  knowledge  of  the 
animals  with  which  they  are  dealing  and  are  able 
to  detect  tendencies  for  good  or  evil  at  an  early 
stage  of  development. 

Cross-breeding. — This  may  be  defined  as  breed- 
ing together  animals  of  two  distinct  breeds.  For 
many  years  cross-breeding  was  a  favorite  method, 
and  probably  became  popular  because  of  the  fre- 
quently observed  fact  that  increased  vigor  was 
imparted  by  it.  During  the  eighteenth  century, 
animals  were  frequently  cross-bred,  which,  undoubt- 
edly, produced  in  the  progeny  a  plasticity  of  con- 
stitution and  well  prepared  them  for  the  hands  of 
skilful  breeders  who  later  attempted  to  improve  them. 

Crossing   does   not   always   bring  improvement, 


Dangers  of  Cross-breeding  161 

although  there  seems  to  be  a  somewhat  prevalent 
idea  that  such  improvement  necessarily  results. 
While  certain  breeds  may  be  crossed  and  will  thus 
produce  increased  vigor  in  the  progeny,  yet  there 
is  frequently  a  tendency  to  reversion.  That  is,  the 
progeny  will  resemble  a  remote  ancestor,  perhaps 
one  of  the  original  breeds  from  which  the  improved 
animals  were  descended.  Charles  Darwin  bred  a 
Black  Spanish  and  a  White  Silky  together  and  in 
the  second  generation  secured  a  fowl  that  very 
much  resembled  the  wild  Jungle  Fowl  of  India, 
from  which  domesticated  fowls  are  supposed  to 
have  descended. 

Whenever  a  cross  is  made  between  individuals 
of  distinct  and  well-established  breeds,  reversion 
is  most  likely  to  occur.  That  is,  the  blood  of  cer- 
tain distinct  breeds  does  not  blend  well.  It  is  said 
that  a  well-established  white  breed  crossed  upon 
a  black  one  that  is  equally  well  established,  is 
quite  as  likely  to  produce  copper-colored  chicks  as 
black  or  white,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two.  There 
seems  to  be  a  greater  tendency  to  reversion  when- 
ever violent  crosses  are  made. 

There  is  a  somewhat  prevalent  idea  that  if  a 
fowl  that  has  certain  good  qualities  be  crossed  on 
one  having  other  good  qualities,  the  offspring 
will  have  the  good  qualities  of  both.  This  is  a  most 
serious  mistake.  In  fact,  the  poor  qualities  of  both 
parents  are  even  more  likely  to  be  seen  in  the  off- 


162  Farm   Poultry 

spring  than  are  the  good  qualities  of  both.  Some 
authorities  state  that  the  poor  qualities  of  both 
parents  are  more  likely  to  be  seen  in  the  offspring 
than  the  good  qualities  of  either. 

When  we  consider  that  the  characters  of  the 
parents  that  are  most  likely  to  be  transmitted  to  the 
offspring  are  those  that  are  common  to  both  parents, 
we  can  understand  that  when  the  improved  char- 
acters of  the  parents  differ  widely  the  unimproved 
characters  that  are  common  to  both  are  most  likely 
to  be  transmitted. 

There  is  much  controversy  over  the  influence  of 
a  preceding  sire  on  the  offspring.  Some  breeders 
hold  that  in  mammals  if  a  pure-bred  female  becomes 
pregnant  by  a  mongrel  she  is  forever  after  incapable 
of  bearing  pure-bred  offspring.  Poultrymen,  how- 
ever, do  not  hold  such  extreme  views.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  it  has  been  clearly  shown  that  the  breed- 
ing qualities  of  a  pure-bred  hen  have  been  injured 
by  a  previous  mating. 

Cross-breeding  has  rendered  a  great  service 
in  the  formation  of  new  breeds.  The  Plymouth 
Rocks  and  Wyandottes  are  familiar  examples  of 
breeds  formed  by  crossing  well-established  breeds. 
It  is  of  doubtful  economy  to  cross  pure-bred  fowls 
of  well-established  races,  except  for  special  pur- 
poses which  will  rarely  be  of  service  to  the  general 
farmer.  It  may  happen  that  skilled  poultrymen  will 
find  it  to  their  advantage  to  cross  distinct  breeds  for 


Pure-bred  Stock  163 

the  production  of  a  speciality  which  has  become 
quite  famous.  Successful  practices  of  this  kind  are 
comparatively  few,  and  are  of  foremost  interest  to 
the  specialist.  Whenever  pure  breeds  are  crossed 
it  is  for  the  production  of  a  merchantable  product, 
and  the  use  of  these  fowls  for  the  production  of  pure- 
bred stock  is  therefore  lost. 

Breed  pure-bred  stock. — The  question  is  frequently 
asked  whether  it  will  pay  to  breed  pure-bred  stock. 
If  the  answer  is  made  candidly  and  honestly  it  must 
be  given  as  both  affirmative  and  negative.  It  cer- 
tainly will  pay  to  breed  pure-bred  stock  if  proper 
food,  care  and  management  be  given.  It  probably 
will  not  pay  the  average  farmer  to  invest  in  expen- 
sive pure-bred  stock  and  to  keep  this  stock  in  the 
way  in  which  the  fowls  of  mixed  breeding  are  gen- 
erally kept  throughout  the  country.  As  the  pure- 
bred stock  had  received  superior  advantages  in 
order  to  bring  it  to  its  greatest  usefulness,  so  must 
it  receive  advantages  which  the  common  stock  of 
the  country  does  not  receive  if  it  is  to  remain  supe- 
rior. In  other  words,  the  common  stock  of  mixed 
breeding  throughout  the  country  is  practically 
equal  to  the  thoroughbred  stock  that  is  kept  under 
the  same  conditions  for  any  considerable  length  of 
time.  If  neglect  and  improper  feeding  are  not  to  enter 
into  the  problem,  the  pure-bred  stock  will,  undoubt- 
edly, give  by  far  the  best  satisfaction.  The  grain- 
raiser  finds  that  a  certain  variety  of  grain  is  hardy 


164  Farm  Poultry 

and  is  recognized  as  "sure,"  that  is,  it  rarely  fails  to 
bring  a  reasonable  crop,  yet  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions  would  not  produce  a  maximum  crop. 
Under  the  most  favorable  conditions  other  varieties 
may  outyield  this  hardy  one,  but  under  adverse 
conditions  would  not  be  able  to  withstand  the  severe 
test  endured  by  it.  So  we  find  pure-bred  stock,  in 
some  respects,  resembles  the  improved  and  more 
productive  but  less  hardy  varieties  of  grain.  Under 
the  most  favorable  conditions  the  pure  breeds  will, 
undoubtedly,  prove  most  remunerative.  Under 
adverse  conditions,  where  hardiness  is  the  all-impor- 
tant consideration,  the  useful  qualities  cannot  remain 
so  highly  developed. 

It  is  frequently  said  that  if  pure-bred  stock  is 
good  for  anything  it  should  prove  superior  in  the 
same  conditions  under  which  common  stock  is 
usually  kept;  but  the  owner  of  common  stock  says 
that  he  does  not  believe  in  pampering  his  fowls. 
This  is  a  serious  mistake,  and  one  that  frequently 
prevents  the  true  appreciation  of  improved  breeds. 
It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  best  of  improved 
breeds  have  reached  their  superiority  through  years 
of  skilful  feeding  and  breeding.  Food  has  always 
played  an  important  part  in  the  formation  and 
improvement  of  all  noted  useful  breeds.  Abundant 
feeding  and  good  care  have  produced  an  organiza- 
tion that  is  capable  of  digesting  and  assimilating 
large  quantities  of  food  and  turning  it  to  good 


Common  and  Pure-bred  Stock  Compared        1G5 

account.  That  is,  the  machine  is  an  economical  one 
and  strong  enough  to  do  much  work.  The  farmer 
who  invests  in  pure-bred  stock  and  gives  it  the 
same  treatment  that  has  maintained  for  years  an 
indifferent  lot  of  fowls  finds  the  improved  stock 
satisfactory  at  first,  but  succeeding  generations 
become  more  and  more  unsatisfactory  until  they 
reach  the  level  of  the  common  stock,  which  was  the 
highest  standard  that  his  care  and  feeding  could 
maintain.  Such  breeders  stoutly  maintain  that  it 
does  not  pay  to  breed  pure-bred  stock. 

Improved  breeds  are  the  best,  and  should  be 
selected  whenever  it  is  possible  to  give  them  proper 
food  and  care.  While  they  may  not  prove  greatly 
superior  under  adverse  conditions,  yet  they  respond 
so  much  more  quickly  to  improved  conditions  that 
those  who  are  able  to  care  properly  for  their  fowls 
will  derive  much  greater  profit  from  the  best  than 
from  the  ordinary.  Improved  breeds  are  most 
remunerative  when  an  abundance  of  suitable  food 
is  provided,  and  the  fowls  are  given  care  conducive 
to  the  particular  purpose  for  which  they  are  kept. 

IMPROVEMENT   OF   COMMON   FOWLS 

If  it  is  desired  to  improve  the  fowls  of  the  farm 
without  the  outlay  of  any  considerable  time  or 
money  except  that  which  is  to  be  given  in  providing 
better  food  and  environment,  perhaps  the  most 


166  Farm  Poultry 

satisfactory  way  is  to  use  a  pure-bred  male.  This 
method  enables  the  farmer  or  poultryman  to  change 
at  once  one-half  of  his  breeding  flock  to  pure-bred 
stock  so  far  as  influence  on  the  progeny  is  concerned. 
From  the  breeders'  standpoint  the  male  consti- 
tutes one-half  of  the  flock,  and  under  the  average 
existing  conditions  this  will  probably  be  a  fair  state- 
ment of  the  male's  influence.  Undoubtedly  there 
are  many  instances  in  which  the  male's  influence 
is  very  much  greater  than  the  combined  influence  of 
all  the  females  of  the  flock.  Instances  of  this  kind 
are  more  likely  to  be  seen  when  the  male  is  a  well- 
formed,  strong,,  vigorous  bird,  from  equally  well- 
formed,  strong,  pure-bred  ancestors.  If  these  con- 
ditions have  existed  for  several  generations,  the 
importance  of  the  male  is  all  the  more  marked. 

If  the  females  are  of  mixed  or  no  particular 
breeding,  their  influence  is  likely  to  be  far  less  than 
that  of  the  male.  So  it  may  be  safely  said  that  the 
influence  of  a  strong,  vigorous,  pure-bred  male, 
introduced  into  a  flock  of  females  of  mixed  breeding, 
will  be  at  least  equal  to  that  of  all  the  females  in  a 
transmission  of  parental  characteristics.  The 
progeny  from  a  well-bred  male  and  females  of  mixed 
breeding  are  generally  quite  uniform  in  form  and 
color.  Many  a  farmer's  boy  has  been  delighted  with 
the  sudden  improvement  of  a  flock  of  fowls  by  the 
introduction  of  a  pure-bred  male.  In  fact,  many 
of  them  have  found  that  the  progeny  of  this  breed- 


Improvement  of  Common  Stock  167 

ing  have  proved  to  be  the  most  desirable  fowls 
for  the  farm.  Some  of  them,  to  their  sorrow,  have 
tried  to  maintain  the  fine  appearance  and  highly 
useful  qualities  of  these  fowls  by  selecting  breeding 
stock  from  the  general  flock.  Consequently,  the 
next  generation  was  less  satisfactory  and  the  third 
and  fourth  were  disappointing.  This  condition  has 
been  most  noticeable  when  the  pure-bred  male 
and  the  more  or  less  indifferent  females  have  repre- 
sented quite  marked  differences  in  type.  Instead  of 
selecting  a  male  from  the  general  flock,  another 
pure-bred  male  of  the  same  breed  as  the  first 
should  have  been  secured.  This  process  is  known 
in  stock-breeding  as  "grading  up."  The  larger 
the  proportion  of  pure-bred  blood  the  higher  the 
grade. 

In  breeding  for  egg  production  it  is  held  to  be  of 
great  importance  to  select  males  whose  female 
ancestors  possessed  the  desired  characteristics  to 
a  marked  degree.  The  fact  that  the  characteristics 
of  our  fowls  are  transmitted  through  the  male 
makes  it  comparatively  easy  for  the  poultryman  to 
improve  his  flock  through  the  introduction  of  supe- 
rior pure-bred  males.  It  is  held  by  some  that  egg 
production,  which  is  a  reproductive  function,  is 
transmitted  almost  wholly  through  the  male.  How- 
ever, the  conservative  breeder  will  be  slow  to  entirely 
give  up  certain  practices  as  to  selection  that  in 
the  past  have  apparently  been  potent  factors  for 


168  Farm   Poultry 

good,  and  place  his  whole  dependence  on  the  influence 
of  the  male. 

A  rational  method  of  improving  a  flock  of  fowls 
is  first  to  choose  with  great  care  the  breed  for  the 
purpose;  from  this  breed  pick  a  strong,  vigorous, 
pure-bred  male,  and  mate  him  with  the  best  hen; 
from  the  progeny  of  this  mating  select  the  best 
females,  to  place  with  another  vigorous,  pure-bred 
male  of  the  same  breed  as  the  first.  This  operation 
should  be  repeated  each  year,  and  eventually  the  fowls 
will  have  all  the  characteristics  of  pure-bred  fowls. 
The  yearly  choice  of  a  pure-bred  male  should  be 
continued. 

It  is  undoubtedly  best  to  breed  from  unrelated 
stock  so  far  as  possible.  It  may  also  be  safely  said 
that  if  the  greatest  improvement  is  to  be  made, 
only  mature  fowls  should  be  used  for  breeding 
purposes.  Particularly  is  this  true  with  the  females 
of  egg  breeds.  Pullets  are  not  so  desirable  as  hens 
for  breeding  purposes.  Continued  breeding  from 
immature  stock  has  a  tendency  to  weaken  the  con- 
stitution and  to  reduce  the  size.  If  it  is  necessary 
to  use  pullets  they  should,  as  a  rule,  be  mated  with 
mature  males.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  frequently 
desirable  to  mate  hens  with  cockerels. 

Breed  useful  fowls. — It  is  the  object  of  the  farmer 
to  breed  useful  fowls.  While  the  individuals  may 
not  possess  the  requisite  fancy  points  to  win  prizes 
at  exhibitions,  yet  these  same  individuals  should 


Breed    Useful  Fowls  169 

be  noted  for  usefulness.  The  most  noted  flocks  for 
egg  production,  those  that  have  gained  a  national 
reputation,  have  been  selected  and  improved  for 
this  one  particular  quality  to  the  exclusion  of  fancy 
points,  on  which  so  much  importance  is  placed  at 
the  great  poultry  exhibitions.  In  the  early  history 
of  these  flocks,  the  surplus  birds  were  not  largely 
sold  for  breeding  purposes.  The  reputation  of 
these  flocks  had  not  been  established,  and  because 
the  birds  did  not  possess  the  prize-winning  fancy 
points,  the  demand  for  them  was  not  equal  to  the 
supply.  In  later  years,  when  the  reputation  of  these 
flocks  became  well  known,  the  surplus  stock  found 
ready  sale  at  remunerative  prices,  solely  because 
of  their  usefulness.  While  farm  stock  should  receive 
recognition  at  agricultural  fairs,  yet  it  will  be  shown 
at  a  disadvantage  when  placed  in  competition  with 
the  fanciers'  fowls,  which  are  bred  largely  for  exhi- 
bition. The  farmer's  stock  should  be  selected  and 
maintained  for  the  profit  of  eggs  and  meat,  rather 
than  for  the  profit  which  the  fowls  may  bring  when 
sold  for  breeding  stock. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  many  farmers  may  sell 
breeding  stock  at  remunerative  prices,  although 
the  main  object  should  not  be  to  produce  birds  for 
this  purpose.  Whenever  one  depends  on  the  sale 
of  fowls  for  breeding  purposes  for  profit,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  enter  into  competition  with  other 
breeders  at  the  great  poultry  shows.  This  necessi- 


170  Farm  Poultry 

tates  a  departure  from  the  purpose  for  which  farm 
fowls  are  kept. 

Farmers  and  others  who  maintain  flocks  for 
usefulness  should  not  forget  the  importance  of 
selection.  Remember  that  all  improvement  is  largely 
due  to  selection,  and  that  after  the  flock  is  well 
established  it  can  be  further  improved  for  the  pur- 
poses for  which  the  breeds  are  kept  by  rigorous 
selection,  skilful  breeding,  and  improved  feeding. 
It  is  possible  for  every  farmer  to  improve  any  breed 
of  fowls  for  his  purpose.  This  of  course  implies 
productiveness  under  certain  conditions.  A  breed 
of  fowls,  or  a  flock  of  fowls  of  a  distinct  breed,  may 
be  brought  to  a  high  state  of  perfection  by  a  poul- 
tryman,  considering  the  conditions  under  which 
he  keeps  them,  and  under  more  favorable  conditions 
they  may  be  still  further  improved. 


CHAPTER   IX 

FEEDING    FOE   EGGS   AND    FOR   MEAT 

THE  successful  poultry-keeper  recognizes  that 
not  all  kinds  of  wholesome  poultry  food  which 
the  market  affords  are  equally  well  suited  to  his 
fowls  which  he  keeps  for  the  production  of  either 
eggs  or  meat.  He  lays  great  stress  on  the  careful 
selection  of  food  for  the  making  of  special  products. 

FEEDING   FOR   EGGS 

If  one  desires  to  feed  economically  for  egg  pro- 
duction, .and  has  learned  little  or  nothing  from 
experience,  a  most  valuable  lesson  may  be  learned 
from  nature.  It  will  be  observed  that  those  fowls 
which  are  more  or  less  neglected,  and,  conse- 
quently, not  so  far  removed  from  the  natural 
state,  lay  most  abundantly  in  the  spring.  In  this 
respect,  then,  the  poultry-keeper  may  profitably 
aim,  so  far  as  it  lies  within  his  power,  to  prolong 
the  spring  throughout  the  year.  In  the  spring 
these  fowls  are  at  liberty  to  roam  at  will  and  to 
find  abundant  green  food  in  the  tender  shoots 
of  grass  and  other  plants.  They  find  meat  food  in 

(17D 


172  Farm  Poultry 

the  form  of  insects,  worms  and  other  low  forms  of 
animal  life.  These,  with  grain  in  some  form,  make 
a  most  perfect  food  for  laying  hens.  If  the  grain 
food  is  not  supplied  to  them  by  the  poultry-keeper, 
they  may  still  find  it  in  the  form  of  seeds  of  various 
plants.  In  other  words,  it  should  be  the  aim  of 
the  poultry-keeper  to  supply  the  food  and  conditions 
which  tend  to  produce  eggs  most  abundantly. 
While  it  is  true  that  the  physical  organization  of 
fowls  is  such  that  they  will  be  unable  to  maintain 
throughout  the  year  the  abundant  supply  of  eggs 
of  the  springtime,  yet  this  will  be  most  nearly 
approached  if  the  conditions  are  springlike  the 
year  round. 

Exercise. — In  the  spring  season  the  fowls  that 
are  given  free  range  obtain  abundant  exercise.  It  is 
important  to  provide  exercise  for  all  noted  egg 
breeds,  as  these  fowls  are  active  in  disposition. 
Close  confinement  without  exercise  is  not  condu- 
cive to  the  best  results,  although  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  food  provided  may  be  most  excellent. 
While  exercise  is  required  for  egg  production,  it 
is  not  desirable  when  the  finest  quality  of  meat  is 
sought,  particularly  during  the  last  of  the  fattening 
period,  so  that  what  may  be  said  of  exercise  for  egg 
production  should  not  be  applied  to  fattening  fowls. 

Quality  of  food. — It  has  been  clearly  shown  by 
experiments  that  the  food  consumed  by  laying 
hens  affects  the  flavor  of  the  eggs.  In  extreme 


Influence  of  Food  on  Flavor  of  Egg  173 

cases,  not  only  is  the  flavor  of  the  food  imparted, 
but  the  odor  as  well.  Onions*  have  been  fed  to 
fowls  in  sufficient  quantity  to  impart  a  decided 
flavor  and  odor  to  the  eggs.  So  marked  was  the 
result  that  persons  wholly  unacquainted  with  the 
experiment  had  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing 
these  eggs  from  those  which  were  laid  by  hens 
fed  a  normal  ration. 

The  mere  fact  that  food  influences  the  flavor  of 
eggs  in  extreme  cases,  is  a  sufficient  reason  for 
the  poultryman  to  reject  all  food  that  is  not  strictly 
wholesome.  It  has  not  been  determined  to  what 
extent  the  ordinary  poultry  foods  influence  the 
flavor;  but  tainted  food  should  not  be  permitted 
to  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  ration.  If 
food  of  high  and  objectionable  flavor  imparts  its 
peculiar  taste  and  odor  to  the  egg,  it  is  not  safe 
for  those  who  desire  to  produce  a  prime  article 
to  run  unnecessary  risks  in  feeding  doubtful  food. 
Pure,  wholesome  food  is  so  abundant  and  cheap  that 
there  is  no  excuse  for  a  questionable  practice. 

Oftentimes  food  of  an  inferior  quality  as  to 
market  requirements  may  serve  a  most  useful 
purpose  as  poultry  food,  and  its  use  would  not 
in  any  way  be  condemned.  Shrunken  and  cracked 
grain,  and  mixed  grains  that  cannot  be  readily 
separated  may  make  most  excellent  food,  while 

*From  unpublished  results  of  experiments  conducted  by  the  author, 
at  Cornell  University. 


174  Farm  Poultry 

those  foods  that  are  moldy  or  have  objectionable 
odors  or  flavors  should  be  avoided. 

Forced  feeding  for  eggs. — It  is  maintained  by 
some  authorities  that,  when  hens  are  given  a  course 
of  forced  feeding  for  egg  production,  their  period 
of  usefulness  is  materially  shortened.  This,  no  doubt, 
may  be  true  in  some  instances,  when  the  fowls 
have  been  injudiciously  fed.  Experience  has  shown 
that  it  is  possible  with  ordinarily  vigorous  animals 
to  carry, the  forcing  process  so  far  that  many  indi- 
viduals will  be  permanently  injured.  These  cases, 
however,  should  be  considered  as  extreme  and  do 
not  come  within  the  province  of  judicious  feeding. 
The  injury  done  to  dairy  animals  by  forced  feeding 
is  undoubtedly  chiefly  due  to  the  injudicious  feed- 
ing of  unnatural  foods.  The  injury  is  associated 
mostly  with  the  digestive  functions.  While  it  may 
be  possible  to  injure  the  digestion  of  laying  hens  by 
forced  feeding,  yet  the  danger  from  this  practice 
is  very  much  less  with  poultry  than  with  other 
classes  of  farm  stock.  Given  a  suitable  ration  and 
an  opportunity  to  take  necessary  exercise  in  pure 
air,  the  hens'  judgment  as  to  quantity  will  not 
often  lead  the  poultryman  astray. 

Egg  production  is  a  reproductive  function,  and 
in  this  respect  differs  from  milk  production  in 
the  dairy  cow.  To  what  extent  this  reproductive 
function  may  be  injured  by  feeding  has  not  been 
fully  determined.  It  has  been  observed  many  times 


Forced  Feeding  for  Egg  Production  175 

that  after  a  year  of  forced  egg  production  the  number 
of  eggs  laid  has  been  somewhat  decreased;  that  is, 
it  is  possible,  by  means  of  extra  food  and  care,  to 
induce  fowls  to  lay  more  eggs  than  would  be  pro- 
duced under  good  average  conditions;  but  it  is 
not  possible  to  keep  up  the  highest  degree  of  egg 
production  through  two  or  three,  successive  years. 
It  is,  therefore,  the  practice  of  many  poultrymen 
to  keep  only  young  birds  for  egg  production  and 
to  force  them  for  this  product.  When  the  hens 
have  served  a  period  of  forced  egg-laying,  they 
are  replaced  by  younger  fowls.  This  method  will 
necessitate  keeping  older  fowls  as  breeding  stock, 
which  is  in  accord  with  the  most  approved  practice. 

The  question  will  naturally  arise :  Will  the  forced 
feeding  of  young  fowls  for  egg  production  lessen 
their  vitality  or  in  any  way  injure  their  value  as 
breeding  stock?  At  the  present  time  there  is  not 
sufficient  accurate  experimental  data  at  hand  to 
warrant  a  positive  answer,  yet  it  is  well  known 
that  many  of  the  most  successful  egg-producing 
flocks  have  been  built  up  by  persistently  pursuing 
this  practice  for  many  years. 

Corn. — Of  the  grain  foods  that  are  usually 
supplied  to  farm  poultry,  corn  has  been,  and  still 
is,  the  most  popular.  This,  no  doubt,  is  largely 
due  to  the  abundance  of  this  grain  and  to  its  relative 
cheapness.  If  the  fowls  are  somewhat  closely  con- 
fined, a  corn  ration  is  found  to  be  somewhat  too 


176  Farm  Poultry 

fattening  for  most  satisfactory  results,  particu- 
larly when  fed  to  general-purpose  fowls.  If  this 
grain  is  supplied  to  the  noted  egg  breeds  that  have 
a  wide  range,  much  more  satisfactory  results  are 
likely  to  be  obtained.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  the 
poultryman  to  feed  considerable  grain  in  such  man- 
ner as  will  not  cause  the  fowls  to  become  excessively 
fa*t.  Fat  fowls,  as  a  rule,  do  not  lay  so  abundantly 
as  do  those  in  moderate  flesh.  When  corn  is  fed  to 
laying  hens  that  have  opportunity  to  take  plenty 
of  exercise  and  to  secure  for  themselves  insects 
and  green  food,  much  better  results  will  be  obtained 
than  when  it  is  fed  to  the  same  kind  of  fowls  closely 
confined.  Experiments  have  shown  that  a  clear  corn 
ration,  given  to  closely  confined  Leghorn  hens,  has 
resulted  in  a  marked  decrease  in  egg  production 
and  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  feather  pulling. 
Feather  pulling  usually  indicates  a  faulty  ration. 
The  fowls  have  a  craving  for  something  not  sup- 
plied to  them,  and  resort  to  feather  eating  to 
obtain  it. 

Experiments  have  clearly  shown  that  food  has 
a  great  influence  on  the  color  of  the  yolk  of  the  egg. 
Corn  will  give  deep  yellow  or  highly  colored  yolks. 
Clear  corn  and  water,  the  feeding  of  which  would 
be  considered  an  extreme  case,  will  produce  yolks 
which  are  objectionable  to  many  consumers  on 
account  of  the  extremely  high  color.  Fairly  high- 
colored  yolks  are  generally  preferred,  and  a  moderate 


Value  of  Corn  as  Food  177 

amount  of  corn  in  the  ration  can  be  depended 
upon  to  produce  the  desired  color. 

The  greatest  economy  in  feeding  fowls  will 
depend  largely  upon  the  ability  of  the  feeder  to 
make  the  best  use  of  corn.  In  supplying  food  for 
domesticated  fowls,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
three  kinds  of  constituents  should  be  present,  in 
tolerably  well-fixed  proportions,  if  the  desired 
results  are  to  be  obtained  most  economically.  These 
constituents  are  mineral,  nitrogenous  and  carbon- 
aceous. Corn  is  deficient  in  both  mineral  and 
nitrogenous  matter.  So,  whenever  corn  forms  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  the  daily  ration,  these 
deficiencies  should  be  supplied  in  some  acceptable 
form.  Animal  meal,  cut  bone,  animal  charcoal 
and  bone  ash  are  all  used  for  this  purpose. 

Wheat. — Wheat  is  preferred  to  corn  by  many 
because  it  is  not  quite  so  fattening,  and  is,  there- 
fore, a  somewhat  safer  food  in  the  hands  of  the 
unskilled  feeder.  On  account  of  the  low  price  of 
wheat  in  recent  years,  it  is  becoming  a  very  com- 
mon poultry  food.  Wheat,  when  fed  alone,  pro- 
duces eggs  having  much  lighter-colored  yolks  than 
are  produced  by  a  corn  ration.  Wheat  alone  has 
somewhat  too  wide  a  nutritive  ratio  for  best  results. 
This  grain  should  be  supplemented  by  some  meat 
food  or  skimmed  milk  in  order  that  the  proportion 
of  protein  may  be  materially  increased.  Wheat 
should  not  form  all  of  the  grain  ration  of  laying 


178  Farm  Poultry 

hens,  but  when  mixed  with  other  grains  it  is  most 
highly  prized. 

Buckwheat. — Buckwheat,  like  wheat,  when  fed 
alone,  has  too  wide  a  nutritive  ratio  and  produces 
white  flesh  and  light-colored  yolks.  These  are 
objectionable  features  to  most  Americans,  but 
in  some  large  cities  the  foreign  population  prefers 
white  skin  and  light-colored  flesh.  This  grain  has 
never  been  so  popular  as  a  poultry  food  in  the 
United  States  as  corn  or  wheat. 

Oats. — Oats  are  considered  a  most  excellent 
food,  and  perhaps  come  nearer  the  ideal  than  any 
other  single  grain,  particularly  if  the  hull  or  outer 
covering  is  removed.  This  hull,  being  tough  and 
woody  and  quite  indigestible,  is  not  relished  by 
the  fowls,  although  some  fowls  will  learn  to  eat 
whole  oats.  Oats  also  tend  to  give  the  fowl  light- 
colored  flesh  and  light-colored  skin.  On  this  account 
oats  are  not  recommended  for  a  finishing  food, 
unless  skin  and  shanks  of  a  light  color  are  desired. 

Linseed  meal. — A  little  linseed  meal  in  the  ground 
food  serves  a  most  valuable  purpose,  particularly 
at  the  molting  period.  "Hens  having  linseed 
meal  molted  nearly  all  at  the  same  time,  earlier 
in  the  season,  and  more  rapidly."* 

Green  food  in  general. — When  fowls  are  some- 
what closely  confined  in  yards  or  pens,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  supply  some  kind  of  green  food  in 

*Bulletin  No.  39,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Grains  and  Succulent  Food  179 

order  to  obtain  the  greatest  production  of  eggs. 
This  should  be  given  them  throughout  the  year. 
The  question  of  how  to  supply  the  best  food  at  the 
least  cost  is  one  that  each  poultry-keeper  must 
decide  largely  for  himself.  It  will  probably  make 
very  little  difference  what  kind  of  green  food  is 
supplied,  provided  that  it  is  relished  by  the  fowls. 
If  the  runs  or  yards  are  large,  so  that  fresh  grass 
may  be  supplied  to  them  during  the  summer  months, 
little  or  no  other  green  food  will  be  required. 

Clover,  etc. — Clover  cut  during  the  early  spring 
is  perhaps  one  of  the  cheapest  and  best  of  foods. 
It  is  nitrogenous  and  is  readily  eaten  when  cut 
fine  in  a  fodder-cutter.  If  clover  is  frequently 
mowed,  a  good  quality  of  green  food  may  be  obtained 
nearly  all  summer,  particularly  in  seasons  of  abun- 
dant rainfall.  Should  the  supply  of  clover  be  limited, 
or  the  season  prove  an  unusually  dry  one,  other 
legumes  may  provide  a  satisfactory  substitute. 
Alfalfa  will  answer  the  purpose  well  if  fed  to  the 
fowls  in  a  fresh  condition.  A  small  plot,  if  well 
established,  will  afford  a  great  quantity  of  green 
food  if  it  is  frequently  mowed.  Young  alfalfa  is 
tender  and  is  relished  by  the  fowls,  but  when  it 
approaches  the  blossoming  stage  it  becomes  more 
woody  and  is  not  so  valuable.  Canada  field  peas 
are  sometimes  grown  for  this  purpose,  and  the 
peas,  if  fed  whole  while  in  a  tender  and  crisp 
condition,  are  eaten  readily  by  the  fowls. 


180 


Farm  Poultry 


Beets  (Mangel-wurzels). — These  beets  make  an 
excellent  green  food  for  the  winter  months.  As 
they  are  easily  raised  and  will  maintain  their  fresh 
condition  in  an  ordinary  root  cellar  during  the  winter 
months,  they  fulfil  many  of  the  requirements  of 
a  practical  poultry  food.  They  may  be  fed  by 
simply  splitting  the  root  length- 
wise with  a  large  knife.  If 
given  to  the  fowls  in  this  form, 
they  will  pick  out  the  crisp, 
fresh  pulp  from  the  cut  surface. 
Root-cutters  are  on  the  market 
which  cut  beets  in  fine  shreds 
somewhat  resembling  earth- 
worms in  form.  (See  Fig.  57.) 
These  shreds  are  eaten  readily. 
Under  ordinary  conditions, 
fowls  should  have,  once  a  day, 
about  all  the  green  food  they 
will  eat.  The  form  in  which  the 
beets  are  offered  is  not  impor- 
tant, provided  they  are  consumed  while  in  a  clean, 
fresh  condition.  Unless  the  pieces  of  roots  be  small 
enough  for  the  fowls  to  swallow  them,  large  pieces  like 
half  a  beet  are  preferable.  When  beets  are  fed  from 
an  open  trough,  in  pieces  of  the  size  usually  made 
by  ordinary  root-cutters,  many  pieces  are  likely  to 
be  scattered  in  the  litter  and  more  or  less  soiled 
before  eaten,  if  eaten  at  all.  Either  very  small, 


FIG.  57.   A  vegetable-cutter. 


Succulent  Food  181 

or  large  and  practically  immovable  pieces,  are 
preferred. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage  is  relished  by  fowls,  and  is 
highly  prized  as  a  poultry  food  by  many  expe- 
rienced poultrymen.  Cabbage,  like  beets,  should 
be  fed  in  a  fresh  condition.  It  is  the  practice  of 
some  poultry-keepers  to  suspend  heads  of  cabbage 
within  reach  of  the  fowls  and  permit  them  to 
partake  ad  libitum. 

Rape,  etc. — Rape,  sea  kale,  and  other  plants 
of  the  cabbage  family,  which  are  noted  for  their 
crisp  stems  and  leaves,  furnish  excellent  green 
poultry  food.  Dwarf  Essex  rape  may  be  sown 
in  narrow  rows  and  given  horse  cultivation.  When 
the  leaves  are  large  enough  to  furnish  considerable 
food,  they  may  be  picked  and  fed  to  the  fowls. 
If  hand-picking  is  objectionable,  the  leaves  may 
be  cut  with  a  sickle  or  scythe.  If  cut  a  few 
inches  from  the  ground,  a  second  or  third  crop  will 
often  be  produced  from  one  seeding. 

Clover  hay. — If  green  food  is  not  at  hand  for 
winter  feeding,  a  good  substitute  may  be  found 
in  steamed  clover  hay,  particularly  if  it  is  mixed 
with  the  soft  or  ground  grain  food.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  have  this  hay  finely  cut.  If  the  steamer 
is  not  at  hand,  the  hay  may  be  satisfactorily  treated 
by  putting  it  in  a  tight  vessel  and  pouring  on  boil- 
ing water  sufficient  to  moisten  all  the  cut  hay, 
permitting  it  to  remain  tightly  covered  over  night. 


182 


Farm  Poultry 


Meat  foods. — Poultrymen  find  it  to  their  advan- 
tage to  imitate  the  natural  food  of  the  fowls  and 
to  furnish  some  meat  food.  Fowls  that  are  given 
a  wide  range  in  the  summer  time  feed  largely  on 
insects  and  earthworms;  but  during  the  winter 

months,  and  when  fowls  are 
confined  in  comparatively 
small  houses  and  yards,  it 
will  be  best  to  feed  meat  in 
some  form.  "Vegetable  foods, 
even  though  furnishing  equal 
amounts  of  all  nutrients  and 
in  the  proportions  con- 
sidered suitable,  are  shown 
to  be  much  inferior  to  ani- 
mal foods  furnishing  the 
same  amounts  of  nutrients 
and  in  the  same  propor- 
tions.'7* 

Fresh  bones,  which  may  be  obtained  from  meat- 
markets,  if  finely  cut  with  bone-cutters  (Figs.  58, 
59),  make  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best,  of  meat 
foods  for  laying  hens.  This  is  also  excellent  for 
little  chickens.  Many  poultrymen,  however,  can- 
not depend  upon  the  local  meat-markets  for  their 
supply,  particularly  during  the  warm  weather. 
After  the  bones  have  become  tainted  they  should 
be  rejected  as  unfit  for  poultry  food.  When  fresh 

*Eighth  Annual  Report,  Mass.  Hatch  Experiment  Station. 


FIG.  58.   A  bone-cutter. 


Meat  Foods  and  Skim  Milk 


183 


bones  cannot  be  obtained,  animal  meal  may  be 
relied  on  for  satisfactory  results.  Only  meal  that 
is  guaranteed  wholesome  should  be  procured.  A 
good  quality  will  generally  contain  about  10  per 
cent  of  nitrogen.  This  meal  should  be  dry  enough 
to  keep  well  for  several  seasons  if  necessity  requires. 

Canned  meat  foods,  specially  prepared  for  poul- 
try, are  on  the  market. 
These  give  satisfactory  re- 
sults under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, but  are  usually 
found  to  be  somewhat 
more  expensive  than  the 
animal  meals.  Some  of  the 
so-called  poultry  meat 
foods  that  are  preserved  in 
tin  cans  consist  largely  of 
liver. 

Skim  milk. — Skim  milk  may  be  substituted, 
wholly  or  in  part,  for  meat  food  without  a  marked 
decrease  in  egg  production,  provided  the  proper 
grain  ration  is  given.  In  order  to  substitute  milk 
entirely  for  meat,  it  will  probably  be  necessary 
to  give  the  fowls  milk  to  drink  instead  of  water 
and  to  mix  soft  food  with  the  milk.  If  milk  be 
depended  upon  entirely  to  take  the  place  of  meat, 
somewhat  greater  skill  will  probably  be  required 
in  feeding  than  if  a  good  quality  of  animal  meal 
is  fed. 


FIG.  59.   Another  style  of 
bone-cutter. 


184  Farm  Poultry 

<». 

Evaporated  milk  by-products,  known  as  gran- 
ulated milk,  milk  albumen  and  various  other  trade 
names,  have  been  fed  to  fowls,  both  young  and 
mature,  with  quite  satisfactory  results.  These 
products  are  rich  in  protein  and  may  often  be  used 
to  good  advantage  in  compounding  rations. 

Grit. — It  is  necessary  that  fowls  be  supplied 
with  some  kind  of  grit,  which  is  used  in  the  giz- 
zard for  grinding  the  food.  Fowls  at  all  ages,  from 
the  little  chicken  just  hatched  to  the  mature  fowl, 
require  grit  if  hard  food  is  given  them.  When 
soft  food  alone  is  supplied,  little  or  no  grit  will 
be  required.  During  the  summer  months,  when 
fowls  have  a  large  range,  they  are  usually  able 
to  find  sufficient  grit  for  themselves.  Small  pieces 
of  stone,  cinders,  etc.,  are  eaten.  Crushed  lime- 
stone and  crushed  granite  also  answer  the  purpose 
admirably  when  it  is  necessary  to  supply  grit  arti- 
ficially. Crushed  granite,  on  account  of  its  exces- 
sive hardness,  is  more  durable  than  pieces  of  softer 
material.  There  are  many  poultry-supply  houses 
that  keep  crushed  granite  in  various  sizes,  suitable 
for  all  kinds  of  poultry.  Crushed  oyster  shells  will 
also  furnish  material  for  grinding  the  food,  although 
they  are  not  recommended  solely  for  this  purpose. 

"Long  or  sharp  splinters  of  glass  or  dry  bone 
should  be  avoided.  The  size  of  particles  of  grit, 
for  hens,  had  better  be  larger  than  a  kernel  of  wheat 
and  should  be  smaller  than  a  kernel  of  corn.  An 


Grit  and  Lime  185 

unlimited  supply  of  pounded  glass  has  been  attended 
with  no  bad  result  when  the  food  and  other  grit 
available  to  the  fowls  contained  an  abundance  of 
lime,  but,  when  the  food  was  deficient  in  lime  and 
no  other  grit  was  attainable,  hens  ate  an  injuriously 
large  amount  of  glass."* 

Lime. — Many  experiments  and  also  chemical 
analyses  of  foods  and  of  eggs  show  that  there  is 
not  sufficient  lime  consumed  by  the  fowls,  in  ordi- 
nary poultry  foods,  to  form  the  shells  of  eggs  pro- 
duced by  laying  hens,  particularly  when  they 
are  producing  eggs  most  abundantly.  It  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  supply  lime,  in  some  form,  to 
laying  hens.  Crushed  oyster  shells  are  recom- 
mended for  this  purpose.  It  is  found  to  be  sat- 
isfactory to  place  the  crushed  shells  before  the 
fowls  in  such  a  manner  that  they  may  eat  the 
amount  needed,  and  it  is  usually  safe  to  rely  on 
the  judgment  of  the  fowls  in  this  respect.  Some 
poultrymen,  however,  mix  crushed  oyster  shells 
with  the  soft  food  in  addition  to  the  supply  which 
should  be  kept  before  them  all  the  time.  "The 
feeding  of  oyster  shells  during  the  laying  sea- 
son, when  they  can  be  cheaply  obtained,  is  recom- 
mended. One  pound  will  contain  lime  enough 
for  the  shells  of  about  seven  dozen  of  eggs.  Fine 
gravel  containing  limestone  will  probably  as  well 
supply  the  deficiency  of  lime  existing  in  most  foods, 

"Bulletin  No.  38,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Statipn, 


186  Farm  Poultry 

but  the  use  of  some  sharper  grit  with  it  may  be 
of  advantage."* 

Salt. — A  little  salt  is  undoubtedly  beneficial  and 
necessary,  but  it  is  poisonous  if  taken  in  large 
quantities.  Instances  are  frequently  reported  of 
fowls  being  injured  by  eating  salt.  They  are  un- 
doubtedly frequently  misled  in  eating  it,  sup- 
posing that  they  are  eating  grit.  Rock-salt  is  par- 
ticularly dangerous  on  this  account.  Some  instances 
have  been  known  of  fowls  being  poisoned  by  eat- 
ing salt  fish  which  had  been  carelessly  thrown  where 
they  could  gain  access  to  it.  When  fowls  have  a 
wide  range  they  eat  grass,  insects,  and  many  other 
things  that  furnish  salt  in  some  quantity.  This  may 
explain  why  it  is  not  necessary  to  feed  salt  under 
these  conditions. 

Experiments  made  at  the  New  York  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  showed  that  salt  was  not 
injurious  in  quantities  below  .063  ounce  per  day 
for  each  hen  (that  is,  nearly  one-half  pint  per  day 
for  100  hens).  The  following,  taken  from  Bulletin 
No.  39,  gives  results  of  the  experiment:  "The  num- 
ber of  eggs  laid  during  this  trial  is  of  no  great  signifi- 
cance, as  it  was  about  the  end  of  the  laying  sea- 
son and  the  hens  were  old;  but,  inasmuch  as  the 
yield  of  eggs  was  twice  as  great  from  the  hens 
having  salt,  while  it  was  mixed  with  the  food,  it 
would  appear  that  not  enough  was  fed  to  very 

*Bulletin  No.  38,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Amount  of  Salt  Necessary  187 

injuriously  affect  egg  production.  The  salt  used 
was  ordinary  barrel  salt,  although  not  coarse. 
Should  rock-salt  be  exposed,  or  salt  that  contained 
large  crystals  or  fragments  as  large  as  the  par- 
ticles of  gravel  and  grit  eaten  by  hens,  it  would 
of  course  not  take  long  for  a  fatal  amount  to  be 
swallowed.  For  mature  fowls  it  is  probable  that 
salt  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  per  day  for  100  fowls 
could,  under  ordinary  conditions,  be  fed  without 
injury." 

Sulfur. — Sulfur  is  generally  recognized  as  a 
blood  purifier,  but  should  not  be  fed  in  any  con- 
siderable quantity  unless  its  action  is  well  under- 
stood and  precautions  are  taken  to  guard  against 
any  undesirable  results.  It  is  generally  recognized 
that  fowls  take  cold  easily  when  fed  sulfur. 

Pepper. — Pepper  is  sometimes  given  to  fowls 
suffering  from  cold  or  in  the  first  stages  of  roup. 
This  is  a  stimulant  and  is  sometimes  given  to  improve 
digestion.  It  is  the  general  opinion,  however, 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  feed  it  if  the  proper  con- 
ditions are  maintained. 

How  to  feed. — If  those  who  have  the  responsi- 
bility of  providing  food  for  fowls  and  other  stock 
will  bear  in  mind  that  food  is  'given  for  a  two- 
fold purpose,  it  will  help  them  to  appreciate  the 
importance  of  a  bountiful  supply  of  the  proper 
kind.  Food  sustains  the  physical  organization  of 
the  fowl  and  furnishes  material  for  a  useful  prod- 


188  Farm  Poultry 

uct  in  the  form  of  eggs  or  meat,  or  both.  It  may 
also  be  considered  largely  as  the  basis  of  improve- 
ment in  breeds  and  varieties,  and  is  often  spoken 
of  as  the  cause,  and  breed  as  the  effect.  While 
this  may  not  be  strictly  true  in  all  cases,  yet  all 
authorities  believe  that  food  has  been  a  most  potent 
factor  in  the  improvement  of  breeds — if  not  the 
chief  cause. 

The  profit  in  feeding  comes  from  the  food  con- 
sumed in  excess  of  that  required  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  body.  If  the  individual  makes 
good  use  of  the  food  consumed,  that  which  is  not 
required  for  maintenance  should  be  directed  chiefly 
toward  the  production  of  merchantable  articles. 
It  should  not  be  held,  however,  that  all  of  the 
food  consumed  in  excess  of  that  required  to  main- 
tain the  body  may  be  devoted  to  the  production 
of  eggs  or  meat.  As  the  ration  is  increased,  the 
work  required  of  the  fowls  to  digest  and  assimilate 
this  food  is  also  increased.  So  no  matter  whether 
the  animal  be  a  hen  or  a  cow,  the  physical  organ- 
ization is  required  to  do  more  work  on  a  full  ration 
than  on  a  light  one,  and  food  is  required  to  supply 
energy  for  this  increased  work. 

There  is  little  danger  of  overfeeding  laying 
hens  if  the  proper  kind  of  food  is  given.  The  diffi- 
culty lies  in  not  being  able  to  secure  fowls  that 
are,  sufficiently  strong  to  digest  and  assimilate 
enough  food  to  give  the  greatest  profit.  A  strong 


Ground  Food  189 

tendency  toward  egg  laying,  a  vigorous  consti- 
tution, and  an  abundance  of  suitable  food,  are 
three  prime  essentials  for  profitable  egg  production. 
Other  things  being  equal,  those  fowls  that  are  able 
to  digest  and  assimilate  the  largest  quantities 
of  food  will  prove  the  most  profitable. 

It  is  the  practice  of  some  successful  poultry- 
men  to  feed  a  part  of  the  daily  grain  ration  ground, 
and  moistened  with  either  milk  or  water.  It  is 
held  to  be  more  economical  to  do  a  part  of  the 
grinding  by  steam  or  water  power  than  to  require  it  all 
to  be  done  within  the  body  of  the  fowl.  In  other  words, 
water  or  some  other  power  is  thought  to  be  cheaper 
than  the  muscular  power  of  the  laying  hen.  It 
is  true  that  the  hen  is  required  to  take  considerable 
exercise,  but  this  exercise  does  not  materially  aid 
in  grinding  the  food. 

Some  experiments  have  been  made  which  tend 
to  show  that  there  is  considerable  to  be  gained 
in  feeding  ground  or  soft  food.  The  following 
is  taken  from  an  experiment  station  publication:* 
"Two  pens  of  laying  hens,  one  of  a  large  and  the 
other  of  a  small  breed,  having  a  ration  the  grain 
of  which  was  whole,  ate  during  their  second  year 
somewhat  more  food  at  a  little  greater  cost  than 
two  similar  pens  having  a  ration  in  which  half 
the  grain  was  ground  and  moistened. 

" Cochin    hens   having   the   whole    grain   ration 

*Bulletin  No.  106,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


190  Farm  Poultry 

laid  much  better  than  those  having  the  ground 
grain,  although  neither  lot  laid  at  a  profitable 
rate  during  the  second  year.  Leghorn  hens  having 
a  ration  in  which  the  grain  was  whole,  consumed 
on  the  average  for  two  years  over  20  per  cent  more 
food  for  the  same  egg  production  than  did  similar 
hens  having  half  the  grain  in  their  ration  ground  and 
moistened.  The  hens  having  whole  grain  had  on 
the  average  for  two  years  6.4  pounds  of  water-free 
food  for  f  every  pound  of  eggs  produced.  Those 
having  ground  grain  had  on  the  average  for  two 
years  5.3  pounds  of  water-free  food  for  every  pound 
of  eggs  produced." 

Poultrymen  do  not  agree  as  to  the  time  of  day 
when  the  soft  food  should  be  fed.  Some  hold  that 
such  food  should  be  given  in  the  morning,  for 'the 
reason  that  the  fowls  have  been  on  the  perches 
during  the  night  and  have  largely  digested  the 
food  which  was  consumed  the  day  before,  and 
consequently  have  comparatively  empty  crops  and 
digestive  organs.  In  order  that  the  morning  meal 
may  be  rapidly  and  easily  digested  they  feed  only 
ground  and  moistened  grain.  They  also  hold  that, 
if  the  fowls  are  to  be  fed  three  times  a  day,  whole 
grain  should  be  fed  at  noon  and  at  night.  Other 
careful  observers  maintain  that  whole  grain  should 
be  given  in  the  morning  and  that  the  ground  food 
should  be  given  at  noon.  It  is  probably  more  impor- 
tant to  feed  a  part  of  the  grain  food  in  a  ground 


Ground  Food  191 

or  soft  condition  than  it  is  to  feed  this  food  at  any 
particular  time  of  day. 

All  poultrymen  believe  that  it  is  important  to 
give  the  laying  hens  considerable  exercise,  par- 
ticularly during  the  winter  months,  and  when  they 
are  more  or  less  closely  confined.  This  may  be 
accomplished,  in  part,  by  requiring  them  to  scratch 
in  the  litter  for  their  grain  food. 


FIG.  60.   Feed  trough  protected  by  a  revolving  rod. 

Equal  parts  of  corn  and  oats  ground,  mixed 
with  an  equal  weight  of  wheat  bran  and  fine  mid- 
dlings, make  an  excellent  soft  food  when  moist- 
ened with  milk  or  water.  That  is,  the  bran  and 
fine  middlings  together  constitute  one-half  the 
weight  of  the  ration.  The  proportion  of  bran  and 
fine  middlings  may  be  varied  somewhat.  If  the 
mixture  appears  too  sticky,  less  middlings  and 
more  bran  should  be  used.  It  is  usually  preferred 
thoroughly  wet;  that  is,  enough  milk  or  water 


192  t         Farm  Poultry 

should  be  added  to  the  ground  grain  to,  wet  all  of 
the  grain  after  it  is  thoroughly  stirred.  It  will 
be  necessary  to  feed  this  food  in  troughs.  Con- 
siderable ingenuity  has  been  exercised  in  devising 
convenient  troughs  that  will  keep  the  food  clean. 
A  swinging  trough,  or  one  protected  by  an  easy-turn- 
ing rod,  as  shown  in  the  illustrations,  will  answer  the 
purpose  very  well.  (See  Figs.  60  and  61.)  Any  safe 
and  convenient  arrangement  that  will  prevent  the 


FIG.  61.   A  swinging  feed  trough. 

fowls  from  perching  on  the  sides  of  the  troughs  will 
meet  the  requirements  of  a  satisfactory  device. 

Many  poultrymen  prefer  to  feed  animal  meal 
in  this  soft  food.  From  one  to  two  pounds  of  animal 
meal  per  day  should  suffice  for  twenty-five  hens, 
particularly  if  milk  is  used  to  moisten  the  ground 
grain.  A  little  linseed  meal,  which  is  particularly 
valuable  during  the  moulting  period,  may  also 
be  added.  Horsemen  have  long  known  that  when 
animals  are  shedding  their  coats  a  little  linseed 
meal  added  to  their  ration  hastens  the  shedding 
of  the  old  coat  and  gives  more  luster  to  the 


Grain  Rations  193 

new,  and  so  poultrymen  find  that  a  little  of  this 
meal  during  the  molting  period  aids  in  the  pro- 
duction of  a  new  coat  of  feathers. 

The  practice  of  feeding  the  mixed  ground  grain 
in  a  dry  condition  has  become  popular  with  many 
poultrymen.  After  extended  trials  it  has  been 
found  to  be  particularly  well  adapted  to  laying 
hens.  This  feed  is  often  spoken  of  as  "dry  mash" 
and  should  constitute  about  one-third  by  weight 
of  the  total  grain  food  consumed.  This  "dry  mash" 
is  fed  from  a  hopper  that  is  kept  open  before  the 
fowls  for  a  part  of  the  day  only.  The  following 
rations  are  recommended  by  the  Poultry  Department 
of  Cornell  University: 

GRAIN 

Winter  Ration  Lbs. 

Wheat 60 

Corn 60 

Oats 30 

Buckwheat » 30 

Summer  Ration 

Wheat 60 

Corn 60 

Oats 30 

GROUND  FEED  "DRY  MASH" 

Corn  meal 60 

Wheat  middlings 60 

Wheat  bran 30 

Alfalfa   meal 10 

Oil  meal 10 

Beef  scrap 50 

Salt 1 

M 


194  Farm  Poultry 

The  whole  grain  should  be  fed  once  or  twice  a 
day  and  scattered  in  the  litter  during  the  cold 
months  or  whenever  the  fowls  do  not  have  ample 
opportunity  to  take  exercise  out-of-doors.  This 
grain  may  be  scattered  in  the  litter  and  given 
in  such  quantity  that  the  fowls  will  eat  it  up  clean. 
In  fact,  they  should  not  be  given  quite  all  they 
want  to  eat.  They  should  be  made  to  scratch  over 
the  litter  and  pick  out  the  last  kernels.  At  night, 
about  an  hour  before  they  go  on  the  perches,  the 
last  meal  of  the  day  may  be  given  them.  This 
should  be  given  in  such  quantities  that  it  will  all 
be  consumed  and  still  afford  the  fowls  about  all 
they  care  to  eat.  In  other  words,  they  should  go 
on  the  perches  at  night  with  full  crops.  During 
the  night  they  have  nothing  to  do  except  to  digest 
and  assimilate  the  evening  meal. 

Litter. — Straw,  either  cut  or  whole,  makes  a 
good  litter  for  poultry  houses  for  both  winter  and 
summer.  Hay  may  also  be  used  for  this  purpose 
if  it  is  more  convenient  or  cheaper  than  straw. 
Buckwheat  hulls  are  preferred  by  many  on  account 
of  cheapness..  In  the  vicinity  of  mills,  where  large 
quantities  of  buckwheat  are  floured,  buckwheat 
hulls  may  be  obtained  cheaply.  Shredded  corn 
fodder  makes  satisfactory  litter,  although  it  is 
somewhat  more  expensive  and  answers  the  purpose 
no  better  than  straw.  During  the  winter  months, 
the  floor  of  the  poultry  house  should  be  covered 


Food  and  Exercise  195 

to  a  depth  of  a  few  inches  with  some  kind  of  litter. 
This  litter  should  be  changed  whenever  it  becomes 
soiled  or  damp. 

FEEDING   FOR   MEAT   OR   FATTENING 

Feeding  fowls  for  meat  production  may  prop- 
erly be  discussed  under  two  rather  distinct  heads 
so  far  as  exercise  is  concerned:  Fattening  mature 
fowls,  and  feeding  young  growing  fowls  that  are 
to  be  sent  to  the  market  when  a  few  months  old. 
Mature  fowls  will  require  little  or  no  exercise  during 
the  process  of  fattening,  while  young  fowls  that 
are  growing  rapidly  will  require  considerable  exercise 
in  order  to  keep  them  in  a  healthy  and  vigorous 
condition,  except  perhaps  for  a  short  time  during 
the  last  of  the  fattening  period,  which  is  some- 
times called  "the  finishing." 

Whenever  a  choice  quality  of  meat  is  to  be  pro- 
duced, little  or  no  exercise  should  be  given  for 
a  few  weeks  immediately  preceding  the  killing. 
When  the  fowl  is  shut  up  or  closely  confined,  the 
muscles  soften  and  the  flesh  becomes  more  tender. 
It  is  conceded  by  those  who  most  highly  prize 
tender  flesh  that  close  confinement,  without  exer- 
cise, greatly  improves  the  quality.  It  is  also  true 
that  fowls  under  these  conditions  take  on  fat  rapidly 
if  the  close  confinement  is  not  continued  too  long. 
Little  exercise,  with  plenty  of  pure  air  and  an  abun- 


196  Farm  Poultry 

dance  of  soft  food,  are  among  the  chief  essentials 
for  economical  fattening.  If  it  is  desired  to  fatten 
fowls  as  quickly  as  possible,  the  ration  should 
consist  largely  of  corn.  Ground  oats,  wheat,  buck- 
wheat, and  barley  may  also  be  used  to  some  extent. 
A  variety  of  foods  undoubtedly  will  serve  a  good 
purpose  in  maintaining  a  good  appetite  somewhat 
longer  than  could  be  maintained  with  but  one  or 
two  kinds  of  grain.  After  fowls  have  been  kept  for 
some  time  on  soft  food,  whole  grain  cannot  form 
a  considerable  portion  of  their  ration  without  a 
loss.  The  organs  for  grinding  and  digesting  hard 
food  have  been  so  long  in  disuse  that  they  are  quite 
unfitted  to  perform  the  office  required  of  them 
when  hard  or  whole  grain  is  provided. 

The  kind  of  food  and  the  form  in  which  it  is 
to  be  given  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  kind  of 
fowls.  Some  successful  poultrymen,  who  make  a 
specialty  of  young  fowls  of  fine  quality,  are  accus- 
tomed to  feed  animal  meal  in  such  proportion 
that  it  will  form  10  to  20  per  cent  of  the  total  ration. 
No  one  would  think  of  using  so  large  a  propor- 
tion of  animal  meal  in  compounding  a  ration  for 
fattening  matured  fowls.  In  one  case,  the  object 
is  to  produce  large  quantities  of  tender  flesh;  in 
the  other,  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  flesh  by 
confinement,  and  to  induce  the  fowls  to  fatten 
readily. 

Separate   the   sexes. — The   sexes   should   be   sep- 


Fattening  and  Exercise  197 

arated  before  the  fattening  period  begins.  It  is 
always  advisable  to  have  the  individuals  as  nearly 
uniform  as  possible  as  regards  age  and  size.  Uneven 
flocks  are  not  nearly  so  satisfactory  to  feed  as 
uniform  ones  and  are  quite  as  unsatisfactory  to 
sell,  particularly  if  they  are  sent  to  market  alive. 


FIG.  62.    A  handy  crate  for  carrying  live  fowls. 

If  it  is  desired  to  fatten  cocks  or  cockerels  that 
show  a  disposition  to  fight,  they  should  be  con- 
fined in  coops  which  are  provided  with  slat  bottoms 
or  bottoms  made  of  poles  near  enough  together 
so  that  the  fowls  cannot  drop  between  them.  These 
coops  should  be  placed  at  some  distance  from  the 
ground,  so  that  the  droppings  will  not  foul  them. 
While  attempts  may  be  made  to  fight,  yet  as  one 
or  both  of  the  combatants  will  almost  surely  step 
between  the  slats  the  combat  will  not  be  carried  far. 


198  Farm  Poultry 

Cramming. — The  English  and  French  resort  to 
the  system  of  forced  feeding,  known  as  cramming, 
for  the  production  of  the  choicest  poultry  for  the 
London  and  Paris  markets.  The  English  learned 
this  process  from  the  French,  and  now  carry  it 
on  to  a  large  extent  in  some  parts  of  southern  Eng- 
land. The  Heathfield  district  in  Sussex  County, 


FIG.  63.  An  English  method  of  arranging  coops,  where  cramming  is  practised. 

England,  is  noted  for  the  large  quantities  of  poul- 
try that  are  fattened  for  the  London  markets 
by  this  process.  Young  birds  four  or  five  months 
old  are  placed  in  coops,  which  are  raised  about 
three  feet  from  the  ground.  These  coops  have 
slat  sides  and  bottoms  and  are  protected  from 
the  weather  by  a  roof.  Each  coop  is  large  enough 
to  hold  comfortably  four  or  five  birds.  (See  Fig. 
63.)  For  the  first  ten  days  after  placing  the  fowls 


Cramming 


199 


in  the  coops,  they  are  fed  twice  a  day  soft  food 
from  little  troughs  suspended  within  easy  reach. 
After  they  have  eaten  all  they  will,  the  troughs 
are  removed  and  no  food  is  offered  until  the  next 
meal.  The  food  consists  largely  of  ground  oats, 
with  the  hulls  re- 
moved, and  ground 
barley.  To  this  is 
added  a  little  tallow 
so  that  each  fowl 
may  receive  about 
a  teaspoonful  a  day. 
The  fowls  are  fed 
in  this  manner  for 
about  ten  days,  at 
the  end  of  which 
time  they  will  not 
eat  so  much  on 
account  of  loss  of 
appetite.  They  are 
then  fattened  by  the 
cramming  process, 
the  food  being  forced  into  the  crop  by  means  of 
a  machine.  Fig.  64  illustrates  a  cramming  machine 
similar  to  those  used  in  the  great  poultry  districts  of 
England.  The  food  is  mixed  with  milk  or  water  to 
the  consistency  of  thick  porridge;  that  is,  just 
about  as  thick  as  it  will  pour  well.  This  is  placed 
in  a  receptacle  or  hopper  in  the  machine  and  is 


FIG.  64.   An  English  cramming  machine. 


200  Farm  Poultry 

forced  through  a  rubber  tube  into  the  crop  of  the 
chicken.  This  tube  is  forced  down  the  chicken's 
neck  and  a  light  pressure  on  a  lever  with  the  foot 
forces  the  food,  while  the  hand  on  the  outside  of 
the  crop  will  detect  the  proper  quantity.  Men 
operating  this  machine  become  very  skilful.  A  good 
operator  can  feed  thirty  dozen  fowls  per  hour. 
This  cramming  process  is  continued  for  about  ten 
days,  when  the  fowls  are  dressed  and  sent  to  mar- 
ket. During  the  major  part  of  the  fattening  season 
the  coops  are  placed  out-of-doors.  (See  Fig.  63.) 
When  the  weather  becomes  too  cool,  indoor  coops 
are  used. 

Before  fowls  are  placed  in  fattening-pens  they 
should  be  given  a  thorough  dressing  of  sulfur  or 
some  other  insecticide  to  kill  the  vermin.  This  is 
particularly  essential,  as  the  fowls  kept  in  coops 
have  no  opportunity  to  combat  these  pests.  Lay- 
ing hens  and  other  fowls  should  be  provided  with 
dust-baths,  but  when  fowls  are  placed  in  close 
confinement  for  fattening,  it  is  not  feasible  to 
provide  baths.  Cleanliness  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance for  these  confined  fowls.  The  coops  or  cages 
of  fattening  fowls  should  not  be  allowed  to  become 
filthy,  neither  should  they  be  too  hot  in  summer 
or  too  cool  in  winter. 

The  French  and  English  use  oats  and  buck- 
wheat largely  as  fattening  foods.  They  prefer 
fowls  having  light-colored  flesh  with  white  skin. 


Cramming   and   Ordinary   Methods   Compared     201 

Americans  prefer  yellow  skin  and  flesh.     Corn  is, 
therefore,   to   be   preferred   in   this   country   as   a 
fattening  food  to  wheat,  barley,  or  buckwheat.    It 
not  only  produces  the  desired  product  but  is  the 
cheapest  food  that  the  market  affords. 

Fattening  by  means  of  cramming  has  been  tried 
in  several  places  in  this  country,  but  without  pro- 
nounced satisfactory  results.  The  American  market 
does  not  demand  so  excessively  fat  fowls  to  bring 
the  highest  prices  as  do  some  of  the  great  markets 
of  Europe.  Some  experiments  tend  to  show  that 
almost  equal  gains  in  weight  may  be  obtained  by 
ordinary  methods  of  feeding  to  those  gained  by 
cramming.  The  gains  in  weight  by  the  cramming 
process  are  due  mostly  to  the  addition  of  fat,  while 
the  ordinary  methods  produce  more  flesh. 


CHAPTER  X 

INCUBATORS   AND   BROODERS 

WHETHER  it  is  best  to  use  incubators  on  farms 
where  only  small  flocks  of  fowls  are  kept,  is  often 
a  difficult  question  to  decide,  particularly  for  those 
who  are  familiar  with  only  the  natural  method  of 
incubation.  As  the  adoption  of  modern  methods 
includes  not  only  the  purchase  of  an  incubator 
and  a  brooder  to  care  for  the  young  fowls,  but  also 
carries  with  it  a  marked  change  in  their  manage- 
ment, it  is  a  question  of  considerable  importance. 

One  frequently  hears  it  said  that  if  success  is 
to  be  attained,  new  and  " up-to-date"  appliances 
must  be  used,  and  that  old  methods  are  too  slow 
for  the  present  age.  In  one  sense  this  is  undoubt- 
edly true,  but  when  seen  from  another  viewpoint 
it  becomes  very  misleading.  It  is  true,  and  prob- 
ably always  will  be  true,  that  in  order  to  achieve 
success  in  any  line  of  work  one  should  employ 
the  best  means  at  his  command.  This  does  not 
prove,  however,  that  because  the  modern  incubator 
is  a  new  invention  and  has  proved  to  be  a  great 
advantage  to  many,  it  is  best  for  every  person 
who  desires  to  keep  fowls  to  purchase  one.  Many 

(202) 


Incubation  and  Incubators  203 

incubators  have  been  purchased   that  have  been 
little  used. 

INCUBATORS 

Before  an  incubator  is  purchased  for  the  farm, 
it  should  be  understood  that  it  will  be  necessary 
to  devote  more  time  and  labor  to  its  manage- 
ment than  is  usually  given  to  natural  incubation. 
Even  the  most  successful  and  experienced  poul- 
trymen  feel  that  there  is  yet  much  for  them  to 
learn,  in  order  to  accomplish  the  best  results  with 
modern  appliances  for  hatching  and  rearing  the 
various  kinds  of  farm  poultry.  The  successful 
management  of  incubators  requires  close  attention 
and  the  best  thought  of  the  operator.  In  other 
words,  it  is  a  business  that  should  be  thoroughly 
learned.  It  should  not  be  entered  into  with  the  idea 
that  it  is  a  simpler  or  easier  method  of  hatching 
eggs  than  the  older  and  rather  slow  method  of 
natural  incubation. 

If  only  small  flocks,  consisting  of  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  fowls,  are  to  be  kept,  probably  it 
will  not  pay  the  farmer  who  expects  but  a  small 
cash  revenue  from  his  fowls  to  attempt  artificial 
incubation.  Particularly  is  this  true  if  his  fowls 
belong  to  one  of  the  so-called  general-purpose 
breeds.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  desired  to  keep 
a  larger  flock  which  consists  principally  or  entirely 
of  one  of  the  distinctively  egg  breeds,  it  undoubt- 


204  Farm  Poultry 

edly  will  be  best  in  the  end  if  the  art  of  artificial 
incubation  is  thoroughly  learned.  The  natural 
processes  of  incubation  are  too  slow  to  meet  the 
demands  of  the  modern  poultry-keeper  who  is 
extensively  engaged  in  the  business.  When  one 
undertakes  to  produce  eggs  exclusively  and  desires 
as  many  as  possible  in  the  winter,  pullets  will, 
of  course,  be  largely  kept  for  this  purpose,  and  these 
cannot  be  depended  on  for  natural  incubation. 
Under  these  conditions,  it  will  be  advisable  to  resort 
to  the  use  t)f  incubators  and  brooders,  by  means 
of  which  the  flock  can  be  maintained.  It  would 
be  quite  impossible  for  the  poultrymen  of  modern 
times  to  maintain  large  flocks  of  young  birds  for 
egg  production  and  rear  chickens  by  the  natural 
method. 

ARTIFICIAL   INCUBATION 

The  art  of  hatching  eggs  by  means  of  artificial 
heat  has  been  known  for  a  long  time.  Early  travelers 
in  Egypt  gave  accounts  of  ovens  that  were  used 
for  hatching  the  eggs  of  ducks,  geese,  and  chickens. 
Heat  was  supplied  by  fermenting  manure.  Remains 
of  these  ovens  are  said  to  have  been  seen  in  com- 
paratively recent  times.  It  is  said  that  the  French 
became  interested  in  artificial  incubation  as  early  as 
the  fifteenth  century,  but  not  until  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century  was  use  made  of  hot  water  as 
a  means  of  conveying  heat  for  artificial  incubation. 


Incubation  205 

From  this  time  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  comparatively  little  advancement  was  made 
in  the  construction  of  incubators.  Since  1870  many 
improvements  have  been  made  and  a  large  number 
of  incubators  have  been  placed  on  the  market. 

In  the  manufacture  of  the  modern  incubator, 
the  idea  has  been  largely  to  imitate  nature.  As 
the  hen  applies  heat  above  the  egg,  so  nearly  all 
incubators  apply  heat  to  the  egg-chamber  from 
above.  In  natural  incubation  the  hen  provides 
a  nest  or  shallow  receptacle  for  the  eggs,  usually 
on  the  ground.  After  laying  a  number  of  eggs, 
the  hen  becomes  "broody"  and  commences  to  sit, 
or  incubate.  At  this  time  the  underpart  of  the 
hen's  body  is  more  abundantly  supplied  with  blood 
than  during  the  laying  or  molting  periods.  In 
other  words,  what  is  known  as  the  organ  of  incu- 
bation, or  plexus,  most  fully  develops  at  this  time. 
This  consists  of  a  network  of  arterial  blood-vessels, 
near  the  surface  of  the  body,  which  bring  greater 
heat  to  the  eggs  than  would  otherwise  be  supplied. 
In  order  to  perfect  systems  of  artificial  incubation, 
many  persons  have  made  a  close  study  of  the  natural 
method  and  have  been  led  to  adopt  some  devices 
or  practices  which  were  accidental  or  necessary 
to  the  hen,  but  not  essential  to  perfect  incubation. 
The  fact  that  hens  sometimes  leave  the  nest  in  the 
early  morning  to  search  for  food,  when  the  grass  is 
still  wet  with  dew,  and  upon  returning  moisten 


206  Farm  Poultry 

their  eggs  with  their  wet  feathers,  has  led  some  to 
sprinkle  the  eggs  at  various  periods  during  the 
process  of  incubation.  This,  however,  has  been 
shown  to  be  unnecessary,  except  possibly  in  local- 
ities where  the  air  is  very  dry.  Poultrymen  have 
also  learned  by  close  observation  that,  in  the  nest, 
particularly  as  the  period  of  incubation  advances, 
the  eggs  are  arranged  mostly  with  the  large  end 
uppermost  or  toward  the  outer  side  of  the  nest.  This 
is  probably  due  to  the  form  of  the  nest  and  the 
fact  that  the  small  end  of  the  egg  is  heavier  in 
proportion  to  its  size  than  the  large  end;  that  is, 
the  center  of  gravity  approaches  the  small  end, 
which  is,  as  incubation  progresses,  due  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  air-chamber  in  the  large  end.  The 
fact  that  the  eggs  are  arranged  with  the  large  end 
uppermost,  has  led  some  persons  to  place  the  eggs 
in  the  incubator  trays  in  a  similar  position.  With- 
out doubt,  the  position  of  the  eggs  does  not  have 
any  particular  influence  on  the  hatching. 

Many  tests  have  been  made  to  determine  the 
actual  temperature  of  eggs  when  natural  incubation 
is  taking  place.  These  tests  show  a  considerable 
variation  until  the  ninth  or  tenth  day.  Until  this 
time  the  eggs  seldom  reach  100°.*  Although  the  tem- 
perature of  the  fowl  is  usually  above  106°,  yet  the 
temperature  of  the  eggs  is  seldom  raised  above  103°, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  heat  is  applied  only  on  one  side. 

*  "Incubation  and  Its  Natural  Laws,"  Cyphers. 


Selecting   an  Incubator 


207 


Selection  of  an  incubator. — An  inexperienced  per- 
son should  exercise  the  same  care  and  judgment 
in  selecting  an  incubator  that  would  be  exercised 
when  purchasing  a  mowing  machine  or  other  expen- 
sive implement.  It  is  no  longer  thought  that  one 


FIG.  65.   One  hundred-and-eighty-egg  incubator. 

particular  kind  of  mowing  machine  is  far  superior 
to  all  others.  Similarly,  it  may  be  said  that  there 
are  many  good  incubators  on  the  market.  A  well- 
made  machine,  similar  to  those  in  use  by  successful 
poultrymen,  will  probably  give  satisfaction  after 
the  business  is  once  thoroughly  learned.  It  should 


208 


Farm  Poultry 


be  remembered  that  machines  do  not  think,  and 
that  the  good  judgment  of  the  operator  is  one  of 
the  most  important  essentials  in  artificial  incuba- 
tion. While  incubators  are  often  placed  before 
the  public  with  somewhat  flaring  announcements, 


FIG.  66.  One-hundred-egg  incubator. 

stating  that  the  operation  of  the  machine  is  most 
simple,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  most 
successful  operators  are  those  who  have  given 
the  business  their  best  thought  and  attention 
throughout  a  long  experience. 

While  there  is  much  to  be  learned  about  arti- 


Selecting   a  Place  for   the   Incubator  209 

ficial  incubation  by  experience,  yet  the  beginner 
cannot  afford  to  ignore  the  knowledge  which  has 
been  gained  by  the  experience  of  others.  Manu- 
facturers of  incubators  have  studied  their  own 
machines  more  or  less  carefully,  and  are  therefore 
able  to  give  some  valuable  information.  Those  who 
are  about  to  invest  in  an  incubator  should  make 
the  most  of  the  information  given  by  manufacturers 
and  others,  and  expect  to  learn  many  valuable 
lessons  by  their  own  experience. 

Placing  the  incubator. — On  many  farms  it  is  not 
easy  to  prepare  a  suitable  place  for  an  incubator. 
In  selecting  a  location  four  essentials  should  be  kept 
in  mind,  namely,  ventilation,  even  temperature  of 
room,  convenience,  and  freedom  from  danger  of 
fire.  Most  incubators  are  heated  by  lamps,  and  if 
they  are  placed  in  a  small  room,  considerable  venti- 
lation will  be  required  in  order  to  keep  the  air  pure. 

An  even  temperature  is  of  considerable  impor- 
tance, although  some  tests  with  modern  incubators 
tend  to  show  that  the  best  hatches  do  not  necessarily 
result  from  the  most  uniform  temperature  of  the 
egg  chamber.  Uniform  temperature  is  desired, 
however,  and  is  easiest  to  maintain  when  the  tem- 
perature of  the  room  in  which  the  incubator  is  placed 
varies  least. 

It  is  important  that  the  incubator  be  placed 
in  a  room  in  which  the  air  is  in  a  normal  condition, — 
that  is,  neither  too  dry  nor  saturated  with  moisture. 


210 


Farm  Poultry 


The  ideal  condition  as  to  purity  will  approximate 
the  air  out-of-doors  where  there  is  a  free  circulation. 
The  air  should  also  contain  at  least  a  moderate 
amount  of  moisture.  The  amount  of  moisture  in  the 


FIG.  67.   An  incubator  house — Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

atmosphere  should  control,  to  some  extent,  the 
ventilation  of  the  incubator.  It  is  desirable  that  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  moisture  of  the  egg 
be  evaporated  during  the  process  of  incubation.  If 
the  air  is  very  dry,  a  little  ventilation  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  secure  the  desired  evaporation,  while  a 
moist  atmosphere  would  require  much  more  ventila- 
tion to  secure  the  same  result.  The  moist  air  of 
a  wet  cellar  which  contains  decaying  fruit  and  vege- 
tables is  not  suited  to  incubation. 

Whenever  kerosene  oil  lamps  are  kept  contin- 
ually burning  for  weeks  at  a  time,  as  they  are  in 
incubators,  there  is  some  danger  from  fire.  It  is  true 


Incubator  Rooms 


211 


that  the  modern  incubator  lamps  are  well  adapted 
to  the  purpose,  but  the  element  of  danger  from  fire 
cannot  be  said  to  be  wholly  eliminated  so  long  as 
these  lamps  are  permitted  to  burn  in  wooden  build- 
ings without  the  watchfulness  of  an  attendant. 

The  convenience  of  an  incubator  room  is  prob- 
ably one  of  the  least  of  the  essentials,  yet  it  is  of 
so  much  importance  that  it  should  not  be  wholly 
overlooked.  Everything  considered,  probably  a 
dry,  airy  cellar  or  half-basement  will  make  the 
most  desirable  location  for  an  incubator  on  the 
farm.  Many  incubator  rooms  have  been  con- 


FIG.  68.   A  small  incubator  building  with  poultry  house  attached. 
Cornell  University. 

structed  in  excavations  which  were  sufficiently 
deep  to  permit  of  most  of  the  room  being  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  (See  Figs.  67  and  68.) 
This  method  will  indoubtedly  secure  an  even  tern- 


212  Farm  Poultry 

perature,  but  the  room  is  likely  to  be  ventilated 
with  difficulty  unless  special  provisions  are  made. 
During  the  warm  days  of  spring  and  early  summer 
it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  ventilate  a  cellar  or  even 
a  basement  without  causing  drafts,  which  would 
interfere  with  the  lamps  and  prevent  them  from 
burning  steadily.  During  cold  weather,  when  the 
air  in  the  cellar  is  warmer  than  that  outside,  it  will 
readily  escape  through  ventilating  flues  if  given 
an  opportunity  to  do  so;  but  whenever  the  outside 
air  is  warmer  and  consequently  lighter  than  the 
cool  impure  air  of  the  cellar,  ventilation  without 
drafts  becomes  a  serious  problem. 

Care  of  incubators. — Incubators  should  receive 
the  same  care  and  careful  adjustment  that  are 
given  to  other  delicate  machines.  The  accurate 
working  of  the  incubator  will  depend  very  largely 
on  the  treatment  it  receives  from  the  operator 
or  attendant.  Whoever  has  charge  of  an  incuba- 
tor should  plan  to  give  it  a  careful  inspection  at 
regular  intervals.  It  should  not  be  necessary, 
however,  to  visit  an  incubator  oftener  than  twice 
a  day.  It  is  always  well  for  the  beginner  to  run  the 
incubator  for  a  few  days  before  filling  it  with  eggs, 
in  order  that  it  may  be  properly  adjusted,  and  also 
to  give  the  operator  a  little  experience  before  risk- 
ing loss. 

After  the  machine  is  adjusted  and  the  atten- 
dant has  gained  some  knowledge  of  operating  it, 


Operating  an  Incubator  213 

the  eggs  may  be  put  in,  although  it  is  well  to  place 
them  in  a  warm  room  for  a  few  hours  previous, 
to  prevent  so  great  a  change  in  the  temperature  of 
the  incubator  as  would  result  from  the  use  of  cold 
eggs.  It  will  be  of  some  advantage  to  the  beginner 
to  keep  temperature  records  of  the  machine  by 
means  of  both  an  incubator  thermometer  and  a 
registering  thermometer.  These  records  will  some- 
times be  of  value  in  regulating  the  machine  for 
subsequent  hatches. 

Within  a  comparatively  few  years  some  large  or 
mammoth  incubators  have  been  constructed  that 
have  the  capacity  of  holding  thousands  of  eggs 
each,  at  one  time.  These  incubators  have  been 
operated  successfully  for  several  seasons  and  may 
be  considered  beyond  the  experimental  stage.  In 
these  machines  heat  is  furnished  by  means  of  hot- 
water  pipes  somewhat  after  the  plan  of  hot-water- 
pipe  brooding  systems. 

They  are  too  large  for  farm  use  except  perhaps 
that  they  may  be  used  for  what  is  known  as  the 
"community  system  of  hatching/'  that  is,  one 
machine  doing  the  hatching  for  many  near-by  poultry 
raisers.  Close  proximity  is  not,  however,  wholly 
essential,  as  newly  hatched  chicks  may  be  trans- 
ported many  miles  with  safety.  "The  community 
system  of  hatching"  is  becoming  quite  popular  in 
some  places.  Many  farmers  prefer  to  purchase  newly 
hatched  chicks  rather  than  care  for  an  incubator. 


FIG.  69.    House  for  brooders  and  incubators;  also  breeding  pens — New 
York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


FIG.  70.   Brooder  house— Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

A 


FIG.  71.   A  small  brooder  house — Cornell  University. 


Brooders  215 

BROODERS 

If  artificial  incubation  is  employed,  some  pro- 
vision must  be  made  for  the  care  of  the  little  chickens 
as  soon  as  they  leave  the  incubator.  Various  kinds 
of  machines  have  been  devised  for  this  purpose, 
which  vary  considerably  in  regard  to  efficiency,  but 
some  kind  of  an  artificial  brooder  must  be  provided. 
From  the  great  variety  of  brooders  on  the  market 
the  farmer  or  poultryman  has  an  opportunity  to 
make  a  selection  according  to  his  wants  and  best 
judgment.  Brooders  vary  greatly  in  size,  as  some  of 
the  smaller  ones  accommodate  no  more  than  fifty 
chickens,  while  the  larger  ones  are  devised  to  furnish 
accommodations  for  many  hundreds  of  young 
fowls.  For  convenience,  we  may  separate  the  various 
kinds  of  brooders  into  two  classes.  These  classes 
represent  two  entirely  different  systems  of  furnish- 
ing heat  and  providing  for  the  comforts  of  the 
little  chickens.  One  class  supplies  heat  by  means 
of  hot-water  pipes.  (See  Fig.  72.)  Brooders  of  this 
kind  are  capable  of  extension  and  of  providing  heat 
for  many  hundreds  of  young  chickens.  The  other 
system  is  represented  fairly  well  by  small  portable 
brooders,  which  supply  heat  by  radiation  from  hot 
air  or  from  hot-water  tanks.  These  are  usually 
heated  by  small  oil  lamps  or  by  gas  jets.  The  pipe 
system  is  most  extensively  used  by  poultrymen 
who  rear  fowls  on  a  somewhat  extensive  scale.  One 


216  Farm  Poultry 

fire,  producing  the  heat  for  many  hundred  chickens, 
gives  to  this  system  an  advantage  over  the  smaller 
brooders  which  require  a  separate  lamp  for  each 
small  flock.  Oil  lamps  require  close  attention,  and 
even  then  they  are  likely  to  give  more  or  less  trouble 


FIG.  72.   Hot-water-pipe  brooders,  covers  of  three  lifted,  man  raising 
the  fourth — New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

by  some  imperfection  in  the  burner  or  deposit 
of  soot  or  carbon  in  some  parts  of  the  flue,  which 
may  lead  to  overheating  and,  in  some  cases,,  may 
produce  disastrous  results.  Brooders,  and  even 
poultry  houses,  have  been  set  on  fire  by  careless 
or  improper  handling  of  brooder  lamps. 

Some"  of  the  most  important  requisites  of  a  good 
brooder  may  be  enumerated  as  follows: 


Essentials   of  a   Good  Brooder  217 

1.  Capable   of   maintaining   a   proper   tempera- 

ture. 

2.  Be  easily  cleaned. 

3.  Provide  good  ventilation. 

4.  Of  such  form  that  all  the  chickens  may  readily 

be  seen. 

5.  Must  be  dry. 

6.  Economical  of  heat. 

7.  Easy  of  construction. 

(1)  A    satisfactory    brooder    must    maintain    a 
proper    temperature    for    delicate    little    chickens. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  maintain  an  even  temper- 
ature, from  90°  to  100°,  for  the  first  week.    After 
that  a  somewhat  lower  temperature  will  be  required. 
Breeds  of  fowls  that  feather  early  in  life  do  not 
require  so  high  a  temperature  in  the  brooder  after 
two  or  three  weeks.   The  temperature  should  always 
be  so  high  that  the  chickens  are  not  inclined  to 
huddle  together  to  keep  warm.    Huddling  indicates 
that  the  temperature  is  too  low  for  best  results. 
The  amateur  poultryman  finds  it  difficult  to  over- 
come the  tendency  toward  bowel  disorders  in  little 
chickens.    One  of  the  potent  causes  of  these  dis- 
orders is  a  cold  brooder  or  frequent  chills. 

(2)  A  brooder  should  be  easily  cleaned.    There 
are  several  reasons  for  this.    The  labor  of  cleaning 
is  an  important  item.    The  time  occupied  is  fre- 
quently of  considerable  importance,   and1  then,   if 
the  brooder  is  not  readily  cleaned,  it  is  much  more 


218  Farm  Poultry 

likely  to  be  neglected,  particularly  during  the 
busiest  seasons  of  the  year.  A  brooder  should  be  so 
constructed  that  it  may  be  swept  clean,  preferably 
with  an  ordinary  broom.  The  floor  should  be  kept 


Fia.  73.    An  out-of-door  brooder 

littered,  so  that  all  the  manure  may  be  readily 
swept  out.  As  filth  and  dampness  are  two  great 
causes  of  failure  with  the  amateur  poultryman,  it 
is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  poultry  houses 
and  brooders  be  kept  as  clean  as  possible. 

(3)  The  air  in  a  brooder  will  become  foul  if 
not  changed  frequently.  Usually,  when  sufficient 
heat  is  supplied  to  give  proper  temperature,  venti- 
lation is  also  secured;  but  occasionally  the  source 
of  heat  is  barely  sufficient  to  maintain  the  required 
temperature  with  the  least  possible  ventilation. 
Then,  in  order  to  keep  the  chickens  warm,  ventila- 
tion must  be  cut  off.  Pure  air  should  be  supplied  at 
all  times.  It  should  be  remembered  that  little  chick- 


Essentials  of  a  Good  Brooder 


219 


ens  have  a  high  temperature,  that  they  breathe 
rapidly,  and  that  the  supply  of  pure  ah-  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  them. 

(4)  It  is  important  to  have  the  brooder  so  arranged 
that  all  the  chickens  may  readily  be  seen  by  the 
attendant.     If  dark  and  inconvenient  corners  are 
permitted  to  exist,  weak  chickens  find  these  nooks 
a  place  of  refuge,  and  may  escape  the  attention  of 
the  attendant.    As  it  is  important  that  all  of  the 
chickens  be  seen  at  each  feeding,  the  ease  of  thorough 
inspection    is    of    considerable    importance    in    the 
care  of  brooders. 

(5)  A  brooder  must  be  dry.   At  no  time  in  the 
life  of  a  hen  is  she  so  sensitive  to  moisture  as  in 


FIG.  74.  An  out-of-door  brooder. 


the  early  stages  of  her  existence.  All  parts  of  the 
brooder  should  be  kept  dry  and  clean.  Whenever 
the  floor  of  the  brooder  becomes  moist,  some  means 
should  be  taken  at  once  to  correct  the  evil.  There 


220  Farm  Poultry 

should  be  sufficient  bottom  heat  or  enough  heat  near 
the  floor  to  keep  it  dry.  Too  much  bottom  heat 
is  objected  to  by  many  poultry  men.  A  somewhat 
popular  belief  is  held  that  bottom  heat,  if  consider- 
able, is  likely  to  produce  what  is  known  as  "leg 
weakness." 

(6)  It  is  of  some  importance  to  have  a  brooder 
that  is  economical  of  heat,  or,  in  other  words,  one 
that  makes  good  use  of  the  fuel  consumed.    The 
provision  of  fuel  is  an  item  of  expense. 

(7)  It  is   of   considerable  importance   that   the 
brooder  be  simply  constructed.    Machines  that  are 
more  or  less  difficult  to  build  are  necessarily  more 
expensive  than  those  that  are  easy  of  construction. 
Then,  too,  some  parts  of  the  appliance  may  require 
renewal,  and  if  the  brooder  is  easy  of  construction 
the  farmer  or  poultryman  may  readily  perform  the 
labor  which  otherwise  would  require  an  additional 
expense  in  sending  the  machine  to  the  factory  for 
repairs. 

The  amateur  should  bear  in  mind  that  it  is 
necessary  for  each  person  to  learn  the  business  for 
himself  by  study  and  experience,  that  there  are  no 
hard  and  fast  rules  for  the  selection  and  operation 
of  the  various  kinds  of  brooders.  One  person  may 
succeed  well  with  a  brooder  that  would  prove 
unsatisfactory  in  the  hands  of  another.  One  per- 
son may  learn  how  best  to  operate  a  particular 
machine,  and,  from  his  study  of  the  condition  of 


Brooders 


221 


the  brooder  and  chickens,  soon  learn  how  to  remedy 
the  most  serious  difficulties,  whereas  another, 
through  a  lack  of  sufficient  knowledge  of  that 
particular  brooder,  would  fail  to  secure  the  essen- 
tials in  rearing  young  fowls.  There  are  many  brood- 
ers that  are  capable  of  producing  good  results  if  the 


FIG.  75.    Gasoline-heated,  colony  brooder  houses — Cornell  University. 

proper  attention  be  given  them;  but  the  manner  of 
caring  for  the  young,  which  find  in  them  a  home, 
is  of  greater  relative  importance  than  the  particular 
construction  of  the  machine. 

Home-made  brooders. — It  is  often  desirable  and 
sometimes  necessary  to  construct  at  home  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  appliances  used  in  the 
modern  poultry  yard.  Sometimes  material  is  at 


222 


Farm  Poultry 


hand  that  may  be  turned  to  good  advantage  in  the 
construction  of  machines.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  more  chickens  are  hatched  than  were  provided 
for,  and  an  extra  brooder  is  needed  for  the  emergency. 
Satisfactory  brooders  may  be  made  at  home,  at 
a  small  expense  for  materials,  by  any  one  who  is 
able  to  work  well  with  the  most  common  of  car- 
penters' tools.  Drygoods  boxes  may  be  utilized  to 


FIG.  76.  A  home-made  brooder  in  cross-section. 

good  advantage.  If  a"  part  of  a  large  drygoods  box 
is  placed  bottom  upwards  so  that  the  bottom  will 
form  a  level  floor  about  a  foot  from  the  ground,  a 
good  foundation  for  a  cheap  brooder  is  established. 
In  the  center  of  this  a  square  or  circular  opening 
is  cut,  into  which  is  fitted  a  box  of  tin  which  is  also 
placed  bottom  up.  A  straight-sided  tin  bucket  or 
pail  may  be  used  instead  of  the  tin  box.  If  the 
former  is  used,  a  circular  opening  should  be  made 
to  fit  the  pail.  In  the  bottom  of  this  pail  (which  is 
bottom  upwards)  should  be  fitted  a  small  tube 


Home-made  Brooders  223 

of  iron  or  tin  to  carry  off  the  smoke  and  gases  from 
the  lamp  which  is  placed  underneath.  On  the  top 
of  the  tin  box  or  pail  is  placed  a  cover  of  light  boards 
which  supports  woolen  or  felt  curtains.  The  illus- 
tration (Fig.  76),  which  shows  an  indoor  brooder  in 
cross  section,  may  aid  in  the  proper  understanding 
of  this  device. 

The  chickens  should  be  confined  by  a  board 
railing  for  several  days,  after  which  they  may  be 
given  an  opportunity  to  take  more  exercise  than 
would  be  permitted  within  the  brooder.  Little 
chickens  should  have  a  chance  to  return  to  the 
brooder  whenever  they  desire  to  do  so.  The  illus- 
tration shows  a  board  railing,  in  section,  which  will 
effectually  confine  the  chickens  until  they  require 
more  exercise  than  the  brooder  will  permit.  There 
is  also  shown  an  approach  which  will  provide  a 
means  by  which  the  chicks  may  easily  enter  and 
leave  the  brooder,  provided  a  suitable  opening  be 
made  in  the  board  railing.  The  curtains  mentioned 
above  prevent  the  heat  from  escaping,  and  provide 
warm,  comfortable  compartments  for  the  chicks. 

One  objection  to  indoor  lamp  brooders  is  the  diffi- 
culty in  carrying  off  the  fumes  from  the  lamp.  If 
possible,  some  provision  should  be  made  to  carry 
the  vitiated  air  and  fumes  from  the  lamp  outside 
the  brooder  and  brooder  house.  A  little  ingenuity 
on  the  part  of  the  poultryman  is  sometimes  required 
to  accomplish  this  object. 


CHAPTER  XI 

FEEDING  AND    CAEE    OF  LITTLE    CHICKENS 

IN  rearing  fowls  it  will  be  found  that  the  atten- 
tion given  to  little  chickens  and  the  manner  of  feed- 
ing them  are  of  the  greatest  importance.  While  it 
is  difficult  and  probably  impossible  to  discuss  satis- 
factorily care  and  feeding  separately,  yet  it  may 
safely  be  said  that  care  and  attention  are  quite  as 
important  as  the  selection  of  food. 

One  successful  poultry-feeder  may  find  it  to 
his  advantage  to  make  use  of  certain  foods,  while 
these  same  foods  in  the  hands  of  others  may  be 
so  misused  that  disappointment  will  surely  result. 
To  further  illustrate,  one  successful  poultryman 
may  insist  that  comparatively  little  of  certain 
kinds  of  grains  should  be  fed.  Other  successful 
feeders  may  make  a  most  satisfactory  use  of  these 
objectionable  grains.  It  is  for  each  one  to  learn  for 
himself  how  to  feed  to  the  best  advantage  those 
foods  which  are  at  hand,  and  to  learn  how  to  sup- 
plement them  with  others  if  they  do  not  form  the 
desired  combination  of  themselves.  In  preparing 
food  for  little  chickens,  it  will  be  well  to  remember 
that  they  are  delicate  organisms  and  require  careful 

(224) 


Food  for  Little   Chickens  225 

handling  and  suitable  food,  particularly  during  the 
first  few  days  of  their  existence,  or  until  they  become 
strong  enough  to  seek  food  for  themselves. 


FOOD 

The  little  chickens  will  require  no  food  for  the 
first  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours  after  hatching. 
A  mistake  is  often  made- in  feeding  them  frequently 
before  the  system  requires  food.  The  close  observer 
will  readily  determine  by  the  action  of  the  chickens 
when  food  is  required.  The  first  food  should  be  of 
such  a  character  that  it  may  be  readily  digested 
without  the  aid  of  grit;  consequently,  soft  food  is 
preferred.  Stale  bread  thoroughly  moistened  with 
milk  makes  a  most  excellent  food  for  newly  hatched 
chickens.  An  experienced  poultryman  will  recognize 
that  there  is  no  best  food  for  little  chickens.  There 
are  many  good  kinds,  if  fed  judiciously.  Again, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  manner  of  feeding  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  and  that  the  attendant  who 
fails  to  study  closely  the  condition  and  wants  of  the 
little  chickens  will  fail  to  reach  the  best  results. 
While  stale  bread  dipped  in  milk  makes  an  excellent 
food,  yet  it  may  be  so  treated  as  to  be  quite  unfit 
for  use.  It  should  be  allowed  to  drain,  after  dipping, 
so  that  the  bread  is  only  thoroughly  moistened.  In 
this  condition,  if  finely  crumbled,  it  makes  a  most 
satisfactory  food.  On  the  other  hand,  bread  that 


226  Farm  Poultry 

is  fresh  and  not  perfectly  baked  will  be  quite  too 
sloppy,  if  saturated  with  milk.  Ground  grain  may  be 
mixed  with  milk  and  fed  to  good  advantage.  If  this 
grain  is  mixed  some  time  before  it  is  to  be  given, 
it  will  become  more  thoroughly  soaked  and  will  be  in 
a  much  softer  condition  than  if  fed  immediately  after 
preparing.  This  is  thought  to  be  of  considerable 
importance  by  persons  who  have  had  years  of  ex- 
perience in  the  preparation  of  food  for  little  chick- 
ens. Sour  milk  is  thought  by  many  of  the  most 
successful  poultry-raisers  to  be  equally  as  desirable 
as  sweet  milk.  Some,  however,  prefer  to  use  chiefly 
the  curd  of  sour  milk  in  mixing  the  soft  food. 

The  following  rations  are  recommended  for  young 
chickens : 

MIXTURE  No.  1*  Lbs. 

Rolled  oats 8 

Bread  crumbs  or  cracker  waste 8 

Sifted  beef  scrap  (best  grade) 2 

Bone  meal 1 

MIXTURE  No.  2* 

Wheat  (cracked) 3 

Cracked  corn  (fine) 2 

Pinhead  oatmeal 1 

MIXTURE  No.  3* 

Wheat  bran 3 

Corn  meal 3 

Wheat  middlings 3 

Beef  scrap  (best  grade) 3 

Bone  meal 1 

"Cornell  University  leaflet,  "Cornell  Ration  for  Chick  Feeding." 


Foods  for  Little  Chickens  227 

Mixture  No.  1  should  be  moistened  with  sour 
skimmed  milk  and  will  prove  a  most  satisfactory 
food  for  the  first  five  or  six  days.  Mixture  No.  3  is 
best  fed  as  a  dry  mash  in  a  hopper  and  is  a  suitable 
food  to  keep  constantly  before  the  chicks  until 
they  are  pretty  well  grown.  No.  2  mixture  is  suit- 
able for  feeding  in  light  litter  after  about  the  first 
week. 

It  is  not  best  to  give  the  little  chick  all  it  can 
possibly  eat  and  then  require  it  to  become  ravenously 
hungry  before  the  next  feeding.  Under  natural 
conditions  the  young  chickens  are  seeking  food  dur- 
ing a  large  portion  of  the  day  and  at  no  time  are 
they  completely  gorged .  A  little  food  at  frequent 
intervals  undoubtedly  is  best.  If  they  are  given  food 
in  suitable  quantities,  feeding  from  five  to  seven 
times  per  day  will  be  found  to  be  none  too  often 
for  the  first  five  or  six  days.  After  this  time  it  will 
not  be  necessary  to  feed  more  than  three  times  a 
day  if  they  have  access  to  the  dry  mash  in  the 
hopper  at  all  times.  Finely  shredded  green  food  and 
charcoal  are  also  necessary.  Some  authorities  prefer 
to  scatter  the  grit  and  charcoal  over  the  food. 

The  following  is  quoted  from  an  experiment 
station  publication:*  "If  skim  milk  be  added  to  the 
ration  fed  to  young  chickens  it  will  increase  the 
consumption  of  other  foods  given.  The  great  increase 

*Summary  of  Bulletin  No.  71,  Purdue  University  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 


228  Farm  Poultry 

in  average  gain  was  coincident  with  the  periods  when 
the  greatest  amount  of  skim  milk  was  consumed. 
Skim  milk  is  especially  valuable  as  a  food  for  young 
chickens  during  the  hot  dry  weather;  and  becomes 
of  less  importance  as  the  chickens  grow  older  and 
the  weather  becomes  cooler." 

Ground  grain  is  preferred  to  whole  or  cracked 
grain,  and  should  constitute  the  chief  part  of  the 
daily  ration.  Practical  poultrymen  and  experi- 
menters are  fairly  well  agreed  on  this  point.  The 
following  illustrates:*  "A  ration  consisting  mostly 
of  ordinary  ground  grain  foods  and  containing  no 
whole  grain  was  more  profitably  fed  to  chicks  than 
another  ration  consisting  mostly  of  whole  grain 
and  containing  no  ground  grain.  ...  In  every 
trial  more  food  was  eaten  when  the  ground  grain 
was  fed  than  when  the  whole  grain  was  fed." 

In  addition  to  the  grain  given  to  the  chickens, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  provide  some  animal  food. 
Various  mixtures  of  grain  foods  have  been  com- 
pared to  mixtures  of  grain  and  animal  meal,  but  the 
latter  have  given  the  better  results.  The  domesti- 
cated hen  seems  to  thrive  best,  in  all  stages  of  exist- 
ence, on  a  ration  which  consists  in  part  of  animal 
food.  "A  ration  in  which  about  two-fifths  of  the 
protein  was  supplied  by  animal  food  was  much 
more  profitably  fed  to  chicks  than  another  ration 
supplying  an  equal  amount  of  protein,  mostly  from 

*Bulletin  No.  126,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Feeding  Little  Chickens  229 

vegetable  sources,  but  supplemented  by  skim  milk 
curd."* 

Experiments  have  demonstrated  clearly  that 
the  ordinary  grain  foods,  as  usually  fed,  do  not 
contain  sufficient  ash  to  permit  the  most  rapid 
development  of  the  young.  The  following  briefly 
states  the  results  of  somewhat  extended  experi- 
ments at  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station:f  "Of  two  rations  which  contained  prac- 
tically the  same  proportions  of  the  ordinarily  con- 
sidered groups  of  constituents,  but  different  amounts 
of  mineral  matter,  the  one  wholly  of  vegetable  origin 
proved  much  inferior  for  growing  chicks  to  the 
other  ration,  higher  in  ash  content,  containing 
animal  food.  When  the  deficiency  of  mineral  matter 
was  made  good  by  the  addition  of  bone  ash,  the  vege- 
table food  ration  for  chicks  equaled  or  somewhat 
surpassed  in.  efficiency  the  corresponding  ration 
in  which  three-eighths  of  the  protein  was  derived 
from  animal  food." 

Hard-boiled  eggs  mixed  with  ground  grain,  and 
perhaps  a  little  milk,  make  a  most  excellent  food. 
This  is  frequently  fed  with  satisfactory  results  dur- 
ing the  first  few  days  of  the  chick's  existence.  Infer- 
tile eggs  which  are  taken  out  of  the  incubator  when- 
ever the  eggs  are  tested,  if  properly  prepared,  will 
furnish  an  excellent  food  for  little  chickens.  These 

*Bulletin  No.  149,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
tSummary  of  Bulletin  No.  171. 


230  Farm  Poultry 

boiled  eggs  should  be  crumbled  or  chopped  fine  and 
may  be  fed  alone  or  mixed  with  softened  ground 
grain. 

Corn  may  form  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
ration  for  young  fowls  that  are  growing  rapidly. 
Granulated  oats  make  an  excellent  food  for  chick- 
ens after  they  are  several  days  old.  These  oats 
may  be  placed  in  receptacles  of  such  a  character 
that  the  food  may  be  readily  accessible  at  all  times 
and  yet  will  not  be  soiled  by  tramping. 

EXERCISE 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  provide  a  run 
or  yard  for  young  chickens.  They  require  much 
exercise,  and  unless  provision  is  made  for  this, 
it  cannot  be  expected  that  the  most  satisfactory 
growth  and  development  will  be  made. 

The  young  of  all  animals  are  active  and  will 
take  constant  exercise  if  opportunity  is  given. 
Particularly  is  this  true  of  the  young  of  fowls. 
They  are  not  only  inclined  to  range  freely  on  their 
own  account,  but  under  natural  conditions  the 
mother,  wandering  from  place  to  place  in  search 
of  food,  compels  the  young  to  take  a  greater  amount 
of  daily  exercise  than  they  would  if  left  wholly  to 
themselves.  Perhaps  the  reader,  if  he  is  a  farmer, 
will  be  surprised  to  recall  how  far  from  home  he 
has  seen  the  old  hen  with  her  brood  of  little  chicks. 


Care  of  Little   Chickens 


231 


It  is  essential  also  that  they  be  kept  in  a  dry 
place,  either  on  a  floor  or  a  dry  soil.  Young  chickens 
should  never  be  permitted  to  run  on  moist  land, 
particularly  if  it  is  allowed  to  become  filthy.  Many 
chickens  that  are  hardy  when  kept  dry  prove  tender 
when  compelled  to  occupy  quarters  that  are  more 


FIG.  77.   Chicken  coop — Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

or  less  damp.  There  are  several  breeds  of  poultry 
that  cannot  endure  dampness,  though  hardy  to  a 
satisfactory  degree  when  provided  with  warm  and 
dry  quarters. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  attendant 
or  feeder  is  responsible  for  the  health  arid  general 
condition  of  the  chickens,  quite  as  much  as  is  the 


232  Farm  Poultry 

food  which  they  consume.  Skilful  feeders,  by  not- 
ing carefully  the  wants  and  conditions  of  the  chick- 
ens as  regards  thrift,  are  able  to  determine  how 
best  to  feed  and  to  accomplish  satisfactory  results 
with  food  that  would  prove  entirely  unsatisfactory 
with  a  little  neglect  or  indifference  on  the  part  of 
the  feeder. 

FEEDING-TROUGHS 

It  is, necessary  to  provide  feeding-troughs  for 
little  chickens  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  tramp- 
ing on  the  food;  for  if  the  food  be  placed  on  the 
floor  of  the  brooder  or  poultry  house,  it  soon  becomes 


FIG.  78.   A  feeding-trough  for  little  chickens. 

soiled  and  unfit  for  consumption.  A  simple  and  effi- 
cient feeding-trough  may  be  made  by  tacking  a  strip 
of  tin  about  3J^  inches  wide  along  the  edge  of  a 
half-inch  board  so  that  the  tin  projects  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  on  either  side  of  the  board.  Bend 
the  tin  so  as  to  form  a  shallow  trough  on  each  side 
of  the  board,  then  fasten  the  board  to  blocks  which 
will  hold  it  edgewise  and  raise  it  from  one  to  two 
inches  from  the  floor.  (See  Fig.  78.)  The  trough 


Food  and  Grit  233 

may  be  from  one  to  three  feet  long.  It  is  within  easy 
reach  of  the  chickens  and  so  narrow  that  they  cannot 
stand  upon  the  edges.  Food  placed  in  such  feeding 
troughs  may  be  kept  clean  until  wholly  consumed. 
Small  feeding  troughs  have  been  supplanted  to  a 


FIG.  79.   A  movable  coop,  showing  a  good  device. 

large  extent  by  dry-feed  hoppers  for  such  food  as 
will  work  well  in  hoppers.  It  is  often  desirable, 
however,  to  feed  moistened  food  that  can  be  best 
placed  before  the  chickens  in  little  troughs. 

GRIT 

Grit  should  be  placed  before  chickens  not  later 
than  the  second  day  after  they  commence  to  eat. 
Coarse  sand  will  answer  the  purpose  very  well  for 
young  chickens.  Finely  crushed  stone  or  pulver- 
ized cinders  will  suffice  if  coarse  sand  or  prepared 


234  Farm  Poultry 

grit  is  not  at  hand.  As  nature  does  not  provide 
grit  in  the  digestive  organs  of  the  newly  hatched 
chicken,  it  is  necessary  to  furnish  this  grit  in  order 
that  the  chick  may  grind  its  first  hard  food.  As 
nature  provides  nourishment  for  a  chicken  for  a 
day  or  two  after  it  is  hatched,  grit  is  not  absolutely 
needed  until  the  third  or  fourth  day,  provided  the 
first  food  is  quite  soft.  As  the  chick  becomes  older, 
coarser  grit  is  required  and  its  supply  should  never 
be  neglected. 

DRINKING-FOUNTAINS 

One  of  the  difficult  problems  that  the  amateur 
poultryman  has  to  solve  is  how  best  to  keep  pure 
drinking-water  continually  before  the  little  chickens. 
Small  chickens  drink  frequently,  and  as  their  little 
beaks  are  sometimes  more  or  less  loaded  with  soft 
food,  which  is  deposited  in  the  drinking-fountain 
whenever  the  beak  becomes  wet,  the  question  of 
how  to  keep  the  water  pure  is  not  an  easy  one  to 
solve.  As  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  drinking-foun- 
tain at  a  warm  temperature,  it  soon  becomes  tainted 
and,  unless  given  frequent  attention,  will  emit  a 
disagreeable  odor.  This  condition  must  not  be 
allowed  to  exist,  for  all  food  and  water  consumed 
by  the  fowls,  particularly  the  young,  should  be  free 
from  taint.  There  is  no  greater  stumbling  block 
to  the  novice  than  the  lack  of  cleanliness. 

Many  automatic  fountains  will  keep  water  before 


Drinking  Fountains 


235 


the  chickens,  but  they  are  frequently  difficult  to 
cleanse  if  they  once  become  tainted.  Nothing  less 
than  frequent  scalding  with  steam  or  boiling  water 
will  answer  the  purpose.  Any  drinking-fountain 
that  is  constructed  of  glass,  that  will  not  bear  such 
temperatures,  is  objectionable.  Tin  or  earthenware 


FIG.  80.    Summer  house  for  cockerels. 
New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

is  preferred  on  account  of  the  ease  of  cleansing.  A 
drinking-fountain  made  on  the  same  principle  as 
the  one  with  a  revolving  reservoir,  described  in  a 
previous  chapter  (see  Fig.  47),  will  prove  very  satis- 
factory. An  empty  tomato  can  and  a  shallow  saucer 
will  answer  every  purpose.  These  may  be  readily 
cleansed  and  are  convenient. 


236 


Farm  Poultry 

BROODERS 


Brooders  require  constant  care  to  keep  them 
clean  and  to  see  that  no  part  becomes  wet,  which 
will  frequently  happen  if  water-dishes  are  placed 
within  the  machine.  Cleanliness  must  be  insisted 
on.  The  temperature  at  which  the  brooder  should 


FIG.  81.   A  home-made  outdoor  dry-feed  hopper. 

be  kept  will  depend  largely  upon  the  age  of  the 
chickens.  It  should  be  warm  enough  so  that  the 
chickens  will  not  huddle  together  to  keep  warm, 
and,  of  course,  should  be  cool  enough  for  the  greatest 
comfort.  Bowel  disorders  are  frequently  caused  by 
exposure  and  improper  brooder  temperatures.  The 
person  who  makes  his  chickens  the  most  comfortable 
will  probably  succeed  best  with  the  brooder. 


Care   of  Brooders  237 

The  following  conclusions  in  regard  to  improper 
feeding  and  brooder  conditions  are  given  by  the 
Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station:* 
"Post-mortem  examination  showed  that  the  diseases 
may  be  classified  under  four  heads.  Disorders 
ascribable : 

"A.  To  heredity  or  to  environment  during  period 
of  incubation.  (Recent  experiments  have 
demonstrated  that  successive  alternate 
periods  of  heat  and  cold  during  incubation 
are  responsible  for  a  very  large  proportion 
of  abnormalities.)  Thirty-three  per  cent 
of  the  chicks  examined  showed  more  or 
less  trouble  under  this  head. 
"B.  To  mechanical  causes,  e.  g.,  overcrowding 
in  the  brooders,  resulting  in  death  by 
suffocation,  trampling,  etc. 
"C.  To  imperfect  sanitation,  lack  of  ventilation, 
sunlight,  etc.;  e.  g.,  tuberculosis  flourishes 
in  dark,  poorly  ventilated  brooders.  Fif- 
teen and  one-tenth  per  cent  of  the  post- 
mortems showed  more  or  less  evidence  of 
tuberculosis. 

"D.  To  improperly  balanced  ration,  i.  e.,  im- 
proper feeding.  For  the  continued  main- 
tenance of  health  there  must  be  a  definite 
proportion  between  the  amount  of  carbo- 
hydrates (starch,  sugar,  etc.),  fats,  and  the 

*Bulletin  No.  61,  p.  53. 


238  Farm  Poultry 

nitrogen-containing  proteins.  A  ration 
wholly  vegetable  is  almost  certain  to  con- 
tain a  too  low  percentage  of  nitrogen, 
while  a  ration  exclusively  animal  is  very 
sure  to  be  deficient  in  carbohydrates.  As 
a  result  of  improper  food,  digestive  dis- 
orders soon  appear,  either  in  the  liver  and 
gall-bladder,  or  in  the  intestines.  Of  the 
chicks  examined,  75.7  per  cent  had  abnor- 
mal livers;  38.6  per  cent  had  various  forms 
of  intestinal  disorders." 

"In  conclusion,  special  attention  is  called  to  the 
following  facts,  confirmed  by  experiments:* 

"1.  Careful  external  and  internal  examination 
(such  as  any  one  can  readily  make)  of  the  dead 
chick  will  usually  disclose  the  cause  of  death.  The 
necessary  remedies  are  usually  not  difficult  to  find. 
"2.  Death  from  overcrowding,  suffocation  and 
trampling  can  be  readily  corrected.  It  is  more 
frequent  than  is  generally  suspected. 

"3.  For  guarding  against  tuberculosis,  give  the 
interior  of  the  brooders  all  the  sun  and  air  pos- 
sible on  pleasant  days. 

"4.  Trouble  of  the  liver  and  gall-bladder  are 
usually  easily  recognizable  from  the  green  stains. 
For  correcting  this,  feed  more  animal  food.  The 
use  of  the  proper  proportion  of  animal  food  will 
pay  a  handsome  profit  through  decreased  mortality 

*Bulletin  No.  61,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  p.  59. 


Causes  of  Death  239 

and  increased  weight  of  the  chicks.  In  feeding 
bear  in  mind  that  chicks  in  a  state  of  nature  spend 
practically  all  their  waking  hours  in  search  of  food, 
and  that  they  do  not  fill  their  crops  in  ten  minutes 
every  two  hours.  Feeding  should  be,  as  far  as  the 
time  of  the  attendant  renders  profitable,  a  con- 
tinuous process,  but  by  no  means  a  continuous  gorge. 

"5.  Diarrhoea,  etc.,  frequently  result  from  feed- 
ing a  too  large  proportion  of  animal  food,  and  are 
often  brought  on  by  cold,  exposure,  etc. 

"6.  If  the  yolk  is  present  in  considerable  quan- 
tity in  chicks  a  week  old,  or  if  more  than  1  or  2 
per  cent  of  deformed  chicks  appears,  look  to  the 
better  regulation  of  the  incubators  or  to  the  health 
of  the  breeding-pens." 


CHAPTER  XII 

CAPONS  AND  BROILERS 

THERE  is  a  question  in  the  minds  of  many  per- 
sons whether  caponizing  is  really  as  profitable  as 
it  is  often  represented  to  be.  The  profits  of  capon 
rearing  that  are  frequently  given  in  captivating 
accounts  are  often  very  misleading.  While  it  is 
true  that  these  most  favorable  reports  are  well 
within  the  range  of  possibilities;  yet  many  of  them 
far  exceed  the  probable  returns  of  earnest  and  well- 
directed  efforts  of  beginners.  One  of  the  first  ques- 
tions which  should  be  decided  as  regards  capon 
rearing  is  the  profit  which  this  enterprise  will 
probably  yield; — in  other  words,  will  caponizing 
pay?  Without  doubt  this  question  should  be  an- 
swered both  affirmatively  and  negatively.  When 
capon  rearing  is  compared  with  some  of  the  most 
productive  lines  of  poultry  work  conducted  at  this 
time  by  the  most  skilful  operators,  it  probably  will 
not  make  a  very  favorable  showing.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  profits  from  fine  capons  which  have  been 
prepared  by  the  expert  will  undoubtedly  compare 
favorably  with  results  obtained  in  other  directions. 
If  the  prices  which  capons  bring  are  to  be  compared 

(240) 


Capons  and  Broilers  241 

with  those  of  the  choicest  broilers,  one  would  be 
led  to  believe  that  broiler  raising  would  be  the  more 
profitable. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  it  is 
quite  possible  to  make  good  capons  of  fowls  that 
at  no  time  in  their  existence  would  have  sold  for 
the  highest  prices  as  broilers.  Broiler  raising,  like  the 
rearing  of  early  or  "hothouse"  lambs,  requires  great 
skill.  Those  who  do  not  understand  how  to  secure 
these  choice  products,  may  make  good  capons  from 
fowls  that  would  not  answer  the  requirements  of 
the  higher  priced  broilers. 

In  rearing  broilers,  it  is  impossible  to  bring  all 
the  birds  to  the  desired  condition — that  is,  all  will 
not  be  so  good  as  the  best.  The  poorer  birds  may 
be  retained  on  the  farm  and  prepared  for  the  capon 
market,  provided  the  breed  of  fowls  selected  for 
broiler  rearing  will  mature  birds  sufficiently  large  to 
make  good  capons.  It  will  not  pay  to  attempt  to 
produce  capons  from  small  fowls.  When  the  profits 
which  choice  capons  bring  are  compared  with  the 
profits  of  rearing  mature  fowls  that  are  sold  for 
meat,  a  most  excellent  showing  will  be  made.  The 
question,  then,  whether  capons  will  pay,  depends 
largely  on  the  point  of  view.  Sometimes  capons 
undoubtedly  can  be  made  to  pay  well,  and  the  rear- 
ing of  them  should  be  encouraged  under  certain 
conditions. 

To  those  who  have  had  no  experience  in  the  rear- 


242  Farm  Poultry 

ing  of  capons,  and  to  whom,  perhaps,  the  word 
is  almost  a  new  one,  it  may  be  stated  that  they 
are  castrated  males.  The  capon  bears  the  same 
relation  to  the  cock  as  the  steer  does  to  the  bull 
or  the  wether  to  the  ram.  The  operation  is  per- 
formed in  order  that  the  fowls  may  grow  larger, 
become  more  gentle,  and  fatten  more  readily  than 
they  would  otherwise.  The  operation,  if  success- 
fully performed,  changes  the  nature  of  the  indivi- 
vidual  to  a  marked  degree.  The  change  brought 
about  by  this  operation  on  the  fowls  is  quite  as 
great  as  that  caused  by  a  similar  operation  upon 
other  classes  of  farm  stock,  if  not  even  greater  than 
that.  The  birds  lose  their  activity,  which  is  a  potent 
factor  in  easy  fattening.  They  grow  considerably 
larger  than  they  otherwise  would  and  appear  much 
more  gentle  and  consequently  thrive  well  in  close 
confinement. 

As  the  bodies  of  capons  are  large,  their  heads 
appear  somewhat  out  of  proportion, — that  is,  the 
comb  and  wattles  do  not  develop,  which  makes  the 
head  appear  small.  The  capon  never  crows  and 
loses  the  voice  of  the  male  and  also  most  of  the 
masculine  characteristics  except  size.  The  flesh 
of  capons  is  especially  prized.  The  muscles  are 
tender,  the  birds  fatten  readily,  and  their  large 
size  makes  them  especially  desirable  for  certain 
methods  of  cooking.  The  largest  capons  sell  for 
the  highest  price.  In  order  to  reach  the  highest 


Capons  243 

profit,  capons  should  be  large  and  fat  and  not  more 
than  ten  or  eleven  months  of  age.  If  they  are  kept 
until  a  later  age,  the  meat  becomes  somewhat 
coarse  and  is  not  so  desirable.  While  early  chickens 


FIG.  82.    A  caponizing  set. 

are  most  highly  prized  for  broilers,  the  later  ones  may 
be  turned  to  a  good  account  for  the  capon  market. 
The  question  is  sometimes  asked,  with  all  serious- 
ness, whether  the  operation  is  not  sufficiently  pain- 
ful to  condemn  the  practice.  Without  doubt  con- 
siderable pain  is  involved,  but  no  more  than  in 
a  similar  operation  which  is  performed  so  gener- 


244  Farm  Poultry 

ally  on  other  classes  of  farm  stock,  and  the  pain 
is  probably  less  than  in  those  cases. 

That  capons  are  regularly  quoted  in  markets 
of  many  cities  shows  that  there  is  sufficient  demand 
for  them  to  warrant  poultrymen  in  giving  consider- 
able attention  to  their  production,  particularly 
if  they  are  so  situated  that  fowls  which  would  other- 
wise bring  low  prices  can  be  turned  to  this  use  to 
a  good  advantage.  The  regular  quotations  also 
indicate  .that  a  considerable  number  of  poultrymen 
find  capon  rearing  a  fairly  profitable  branch  of  the 
poultry  business.  Were  this  not  true,  poultrymen 
would  cease  to  rear  them  and  their  presence  in  the 
markets  of  so  friany  cities  would  be  unknown. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  learn  how  to  perform  success- 
fully the  operation  of  caponizing  fowls  of  the  proper 
age,  but  some  persons  are  naturally  more  deft  in 
finger  manipulation  than  others  and  are  able  to 
perform  delicate  operations  neatly  and  rapidly. 
In  districts  in  which  large  numbers  of  capons  are 
reared,  professionals  are  usually  engaged  by  capon 
rearers  to  perform  operations  on  large  numbers  of 
fowls  at  one  time.  They  go  about  the  country 
doing  the  work  more  satisfactorily  and  more  rapidly 
than  the  owners  could  do  it  for  themselves,  and,  as 
they  have  become  so  expert,  they  are  enabled  to 
perform  the  operation  for  a  very  small  sum  and  still 
make  good  wages.  From  two  to  four  cents  per  head 
usually  pays  for  a  skilful  operator.  Any  one  who  is 


Caponizing  245 

at  all  deft  may  perform  the  work  by  merely  follow- 
ing the  directions  furnished  by  the  manufacturers  of 
caponizing  instruments.  Comparatively  few  farm- 
ers, however,  will  become  expert  if  they  operate 
only  upon  their  own  fowls.  " While  the  novice  might, 
and  probably  would,  spend  a  half  hour  upon  the  first 
bird,  and  then  possibly  produce  a  slip,  experts  will 
do  scores  each  hour  during  the  whole  day.  One 
very  sure  and  rapid  worker  caponized  one  bird  per 
minute  for  three  hours  in  succession,  his  day's  work 
being  450,  of  which  not  one  per  cent  died."* 

Not  all  breeds  of  fowls  are  equally  well  suited 
to  the  production  of  capons.  The  Black  Langshans 
are  generally  especially  recommended  for  this 
purpose.  The  birds  of  this  breed  are  large  and 
are  easily  operated  upon.  In  a  somewhat  general 
way  it  may  be  said  that  the  meat  breeds  and  the 
general-purpose  fowls  are  suitable  for  producing 
capons.  It  is  held  by  some  that  the  Brahmas 
though  large  are  not  easily  operated  upon.  Crosses 
between  the  Light  Brahma  and  the  White  Plymouth 
Rocks  or  the  White  Wyandottes  are  highly  prized. 
The  Cornish  Indian  Game  is  sometimes  used  to 
cross  on  other  large  fowls,  as  it  improves  the  breast 
meat  without  decreasing  the  size.  Commission  men 
do  not  state  that  there  is  much,  if  any,  difference  in 
the  value  of  capons  from  the  different  breeds  of 
fowls;  that  is,  it  is  not  recognized  that  some  breeds 

*  "Pocket  Money  Poultry,"  Norys,  page  171. 


246  Farm  Poultry 

produce  capons  decidedly  superior  to  those  of  other 
breeds.  Large-sized  birds  that  are  fat  bring  the 
highest  prices. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  fowls  should  be 
operated  upon  when  they  have  attained  the  weight 
of  about  two  pounds.  Some  poultrymen  recom- 
mend that  the  operation  be  performed  a  little 
earlier  in  life,  while  others  are  very  successful  in 
operating  upon  birds  that  are  somewhat  older. 
Without  doubt  the  best  time  will  depend  somewhat 
upon  the  condition  of  the  bird.  If  the  fowls  are 
growthy  and  thin,  a  somewhat  lighter  weight  will 
suffice  than  if  the  fowls  are  very  plump.  In  a  general 
way,  authorities  on  caponizing  recommend  that  the 
operation  be  performed  when  the  fowls  are  from  1J/2 
to  2^2  pounds  in  weight. 

Sometimes  birds  of  the  larger  breeds  may  be 
operated  upon  when  3  pounds  in  weight  or  even 
larger,  but  they  should  never  be  over  six  months 
old.  It  is  more  difficult  to  operate  on  young,  small 
birds  on  account  of  lack  of  room  to  perform  the 
operation.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  birds  become 
older  the  testacles  increase  in  size  and  the  blood- 
vessels supplying  these  organs  are  more  likely  to 
be  ruptured. 

Chickens  to  be  operated  upon  should  be  fasted 
from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours,  and  in  some 
cases  even  forty-eight  hours  is  recommended.  It 
is  suggested  not  only  to  withhold  food,  but,  during 


Preparation  for   Caponizing 


247 


a  considerable  period  of  the  fasting,  to  withhold 
water  as  well.  Fowls  are  fasted  in  order  to  empty 
the  digestive  organs  and  to  deplete  somewhat  the 
quantity  of  blood,  and  thereby  reduce  the  danger  of 
rupturing  the  blood-vessels  while  performing  the 
operation.  One  great  danger  is  in  the  liability  of 
rupturing  the  arteries  which  are  situated  very  near 
the  organs  that  are  to  be  removed.  When  it  is  borne 
in  mind  that  the  abdominal  cavity  is  opened  and 
that  the  intestines  are 
pushed  aside  in  order  to 
perform  the  operation 
successfully,  it  will 
readily  be  seen  how  es- 
sential it  is  to  have  the 
bowels  as  nearly  empty 

aS  pOSSible,   and,   at  the        FIG.  83.   Caponizing  table,  showing  cords 

same  time,  to  deplete  and  weights  used  to  hold  the  fowls. 
the  quantity  of  blood  in  the  blood-vessels  so  far  as 
the  good  health  of  the  fowl  will  permit.  One  objec- 
tion that  is  frequently  made  to  caponizing  is,  that 
good  light  is  required,  particularly  if  the  operator  is 
not  the  most  skilled.  Clear  days  when  the  sun  shines 
brightly  are  preferred.  It  frequently  happens  that 
fowls  may  be  fasted  for  the  operation  and  cloudy 
weather  prevail.  This  should  be  sufficient  cause  to 
prevent  the  novice  from  proceeding  further  until 
clear  weather  comes.  In  such  an  event,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  keep  the  fowls  on  very  light  rations 


248  Farm  Poultry 

of  soft  food  until  the  promise  of  clear  weather  is 
near  at  hand.  Experienced  operators  are  not  hin- 
dered so  much  by  improper  light  as  are  the  inex- 
perienced, yet  all  deem  the  brightest  light  desirable. 

The  head-reflector  used  by  physicians  in  per- 
forming delicate  operations  upon  the  throat,  is 
used  by  some  operators,  and  is  found  to  work  suc- 
cessfully with  artificial  light.  Expert  operators 
are  enabled  to  work  with  the  reflector  with  almost 
as  much  .ease  and  satisfaction  as  in  bright  sunlight. 
This  reflector  consists  of  a  mirror  fastened  to  the 
head  by  a  band  in  such  a  manner  that  the  mirror 
can  be  turned  to  any  desired  angle  to  throw  the 
light  into  the  cavity,  and  to  show  the  location  of  the 
organs  to  be  removed,  as  well  as  the  place  of  the 
near-by  veins  and  arteries. 

When  to  make  capons  and  the  time  to  sell.— 
The  production  of  capons  for  market  should  be 
controlled  largely  by  the  market  conditions.  As 
capons  sell  best  from  soon  after  Christmas  until  the 
last  of  March  or  middle  of  April,  they  should  be 
ready  for  market  at  this  time.  It  takes  about  ten 
months  to  prepare  properly  a  capon  for  market,  and 
they  should  not  be  put  on  the  market  when  over 
a  year  old.  There  is  not  much  difference  as  to  the 
seasons  of  the  year  so  far  as  the  effects  of  the  opera- 
tion are  concerned.  Cockerels  hatched  in  May 
or  June,  especially  of  the  early  maturing  varie- 
ties, like  Plymouth  Rocks  or  Wyandottes?  or  even 


How   to   Caponize  249 

th^se  crossed  on  Brahmas  or  Langshans,  castrated 
in  September  or  October,  should  find  ready  sale 
during  the  high  market  season. 

Farmers  who  have  cheap  food,  who  are  far  from 
shipping  points,  and  therefore  kill  and  ship  all  at 
one  time  in  cold  weather,  might  profitably  make 
capons  of  all  young  cocks.  Those  who  keep  birds 
until  maturity  for  their  own  table  should  do  the  same. 

The  operation. — If  one  desires  to  attempt  the 
operation  without  having  received  personal  instruc- 
tion, he  will  do  well  to  commence  on  a  fowl  that  has 
just  been  killed  for  this  purpose.  He  may  then  take 
as  much  time  as  he  desires  to  study  the  location, 
attachment,  and  removal  of  the  organs  without 
inflicting  torture  on  the  fowl.  It  will  be  best,  how- 
ever, to  hold  the  fowl,  and  to  perform  the  operation 
as  though  he  were  alive.  The  fowl  should  be  held 
on  its  side  on  a  table,  box  or  end  of  barrel  and  secured 
by  passing  a  strong  cord  around  its  shanks  and 
another  around  both  wings  close  to  the  shoulder 
joints.  These  cords  may  be  held  in  place  by  weights 
as  shown  in  the  illustration.  Remove  a  few  feathers 
on  the  side  over  the  last  two  ribs  and  moisten  the 
others  so  they  will  not  interfere  with  the  operation. 
Make  an  incision  well  toward  the  back  between  the 
last  two  ribs,  this  may  be  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
long  and  should  be  kept  open  by  means  of  a  spreader 
provided  for  this  purpose.  The  lining  membrane 
of  the  abdominal  cavity  should  now  be  hooked  and 


250  Farm  Poultry 

cut  through  or  torn.  The  intestines  may  be  pushed 
away  from  the  back  and  the  testacles  readily  seen. 
These  may  be  removed  by  proper  instruments.  The 
manufacturers  of  caponizing  instruments  furnish 
instruments  for  the  various  parts  of  the  operation  and 
accompany  them  with  explicit  instructions  for  the 
beginner. 

Preparing  capons  for  market. — "Capons,  like 
other  fowls,  should  be  fasted  twenty-four  hours 
before  killing,  that  the  crop  may  be  empty  and 
therefore  need  not  be  removed.  The  head,  the 
distinguishing  mark  of  a  capon,  has  a  particularly 
long  and  pointed  appearance  and  should  always  be 
left  on.  They  should  be  bled  by  cutting  inside  the 
mouth  or  throat.  The  neck  and  saddle  feathers  are 
unusually  large  and  fine;  these  and  the  small  size 
of  the  tail  distinguish  a  capon  from  any  other  fowl; 
therefore  they  are  left  on,  as  well  as  the  feathers  on 
the  leg  from  the  hock  joint  half  way  up  the  thigh 
and  those  on  the  outer  joints  of  the  wings.  The 
breast,  back,  the  wings  next  to  the  body  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  thighs  are  picked  clean.  They 
should  be  dry-picked  without  tearing  the  skin,  and 
the  head,  mouth,  shanks  and  feet  washed  clean. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  remove  all  clotted  blood 
from  the  mouth.  Capons  for  the  New  York  markets 
should  be  sent  undrawn.  Some  Boston  dealers 
receive  them  undrawn.  They  should  be  packed 
in  boxes  or  flour  barrels  washed  clean  and  lined 


Broilers  251 

with  white  wrapping-paper.  Neatness  and  attrac- 
tive appearance  are  everything  where  quick  sales 
and  best  prices  are  to  be  secured."* 

BROILERS 

Broilers  are  young,  plump  and  fat  chickens 
which  have  been  forced  to  make  the  greatest  pos- 
sible weight  during  the  few  weeks  of  their  existence. 
Broiler  rearing  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  spe- 
cialties of  the  poultry  business,  and  one  that  does  not 
appeal  particularly  to  the  farmer  who  keeps  his  fowls 
under  what  may  be  called  good  average  conditions. 
If  a  farmer  who  keeps  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and 
fifty  hens  should  produce  a  few  good  broilers,  the 
extra  expense  and  trouble  of  preparing  them  for 
market  and  of  marketing  them  would  make  serious 
inroads  on  the  profits. 

Great  skill  is  required  to  bring  this  work  to  its 
highest  perfection;  consequently  those  who  are 
prepared  to  raise  a  considerable  number  of  fowls 
for  this  purpose  are  more  likely  to  become  expert 
than  are  those  whose  chief  interests  lie  along  other 
lines  of  work.  On  this  account  the  production  of 
broilers  for  the  markets  of  the  large  cities  is  chiefly 
in  the  hands  of  comparatively  few,  who  may  be 
called  specialists.  These  men  make  broiler  rearing 
a  considerable  part  of  their  business,  and  learn  how 

*  Bulletin  No.  20,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


252  Farm  Poultry 

to  perform  the  various  operations  in  the  best  manner 
and  with  the  greatest  exactness. 

If  one  is  contemplating  the  production  of  broil- 
ers on  a  somewhat  extensive  scale,  he  should  not 
depend  upon  written  directions  for  his  guidance, 
but  should  make  a  thorough  inspection  of  the 
markets,  in  order  to  learn  what  kind  of  product 
the  market  demands.  He  should  also  visit  one  or 
more  broiler  farms,  where  these  birds  are  success- 
fully reared  in  large  numbers.  The  experience  of 
practical  men  is  the  safest  guide. 

As  broilers  are  often  placed  upon  the  market 
when  they  weigh  less  than  two  pounds  per  pair, 
the  skill  in  feeding  little  chickens  and  the  care  of 
the  brooder  become  of  the  utmost  importance. 
Light-weight  winter  broilers  may  be  regarded  as 
strictly  brooder  chickens.  The  light-weight  broil- 
ers, when  in  demand,  sell  for  the  highest  prices. 
Skill  is  of  more  relative  importance  in  the  produc- 
tion of  young  high-priced  meat  than  in  the  pro- 
duction of  mature  fowls  or  those  which  more  nearly 
approach  maturity. 

While  the  cost  of  food  is  of  less  relative  impor- 
tance in  the  production  of  young  fowls  for  the 
market  than  in  the  production  of  older  ones,  yet  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  cost  of  food  per 
pound  of  gain  in  live  weight  increases  as  the  period 
from  birth  or  hatching  is  increased.  This  cost  con- 
tinues to  increase  until  a  period  is  reached  when  the 


Broiler  Rearing  253 

food  consumed  produces  no  gain,  that  is,  until  the 
fowls  cease  to  increase  in  size  and  weight.  If  the  pro- 
duction of  flesh  is  considered  from  a  standpoint  of 
food  alone,  the  young  fowls  are  the  most  profitable. 
When  the  cost  of  hatching  and  the  value  of  the 
eggs  are  taken  into  account,  the  youngest  product 
may  not  be  the  most  profitable  to  the  producer.  It 
is  for  each  breeder  to  determine  for  himself  at  what 
age  he  can  sell  with  the  greatest  profit.  Young  fowls 
will  undoubtedly  be  selected,  but,  as  a  few  weeks' 
growth  often  changes  considerably  the  value  per 
pound,  fine  discriminations  must  be  made  if  one  is 
to  become  expert. 

The  question  is  frequently  asked,  "Will  it  pay 
to  raise  broilers?"  It  will  undoubtedly  pay  the 
right  kind  of  people  to  enter  into  the  business  on  a 
somewhat  large  scale;  yet  no  one,  no  matter  how 
enthusiastic  he  may  be,  should  attempt  broiler 
rearing  on  a  large  scale  without  experience  and  con- 
siderable capital.  The  chief  essential  to  success 
is  a  good  knowledge  of  the  business.  If  this  cannot 
be  learned  from  the  experience  of  others,  it  should 
be  learned  from  personal  experience,  beginning 
in  a  small  way  at  first  and  advancing  as  judgment 
seems  to  warrant. 

Broilers  are  reared  more  for  home  consumption 
on  the  farms  in  some  parts  of  the  country  than  others. 
The  South  depends  more  on  these  young  fowls  than 
the  North. 


254  Farm  Poultry 

Dry,  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  are  specially  prized 
for  broiler  rearing.  Cleanliness  and  freedom  from 
moisture  are  requisites  to  success.  These  con- 
ditions are  more  easily  maintained  on  light,  po- 
rous soils  than  on  heavy  ones.  Keep  the  chickens 
dry  and  clean  and  give  them  plenty  of  wholesome, 
easily  digested  food.  Corn  meal,  wheat  bran, 
ground  oats  with  the  hulls  removed,  and  hard- 
boiled  eggs  may  make  the  bulk  of  the  ration.  These 
should  be  fed  after  thoroughly  soaking  or  scalding. 
Some  meat  food  and  some  green  food  should  not 
be  neglected.  Baked  foods  are  recommended  and 
are  undoubtedly  safe.  For  further  discussion  of 
foods,  see  chapter  on  feeding  little  chickens  (Chap- 
ter XI).  Those  who  make  a  study  of  the  foods  used 
by  successful  poultry-raisers  soon  learn  that  there  is 
no  best  food,  but  many  foods  are  excellent  if  fed 
with  judgment. 

Various  breeds  of  fowls  are  used  for  broilers,  one 
of  the  favorites  being  the  Wyandotte.  Many  prefer 
to  use  crosses,  on  account  of  the  vigor  and  hardiness  of 
the  chicks.  Heavy  breeds  are  usually  crossed  on 
the  smaller,  quick-maturing  ones.  These  crosses 
have  suitable  size  and  they  mature  early. 

Broiler-rearing  and  egg  production  go  well 
together.  Experienced  broiler  raisers  who  have  a 
good  knowledge  of  the  business  are  able  to  produce 
eggs  that  will  give  better  and  more  uniform  lots  of 
chickens  than  those  that  are  purchased  from  farmers 


Production  of  Broilers  255 

who,  perhaps,  keep  fowls  of  many  different  breeds. 
The  ultimate  success  will  depend  largely  on  the 
fertility  of  the  eggs  and  on  the  kind  of  fowls  that 
produce  them. 

Many  farmers  who  live  near  good  markets  are 
able  to  dispose  of  some  of  their  best  early  chickens 
as  broilers  at  remunerative  prices.  Sometimes  the 
local  demand  is  sufficiently  great  to  cause  rather 
indifferent  birds  to  be  marketed  at  good  prices. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

DUCKS  AND    GEESE 

THE  American  farmer  too  often  thinks  of  "poul- 
try" as  comprising  only  "hens  and  chickens."  The 
term  really  covers  all  kinds  of  domesticated  birds, 
including  those  grown  for  pets  or  for  mere  fancy. 
With  the  more  diversified  agriculture  of  the  future, 
other  species  than  hens  must  come  into  greater 
prominence. 

DUCKS — GENERAL   DISCUSSION 

While  ducks  have  been  reared  on  farms  for  a 
great  many  years,  yet  a  large  proportion  of  the 
business  of  duck-rearing  is  now  in  the  hands  of 
specialists  who  conduct  it  on  an  extensive  scale. 
A  considerable  proportion  of  the  duck  products 
of  farms,  where  only  small  flocks  are  maintained, 
is  consumed  at  home  and  does  not  affect  the  gen- 
eral market.  The  rearing  of  the  so-called  "green 
ducks"  for  market  has  provided  a  profitable  occu- 
pation for  many  extensive  duck-raisers.  Compara- 
tively few  farmers  enter  into  the  business  of  duck- 
raising  extensively.  Ducks  are  usually  kept  in 

(256) 


Duck-Rearing  257 

moderate-sized  flocks,  that  roam  at  will  over  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  premises.  When  reared 
under  these  conditions,  the  ducks  frequently  prove 
beneficial  in  the  destruction  of  various  insect  pests. 
They  will  travel  long  distances,  and  in  their  rambles 
are  continually  on  the  lookout  for  food;  both  vege- 
table and  animal  life  are  greedily  consumed.  Ducks 
may  become,  under  certain  conditions,  quite  as 
destructive  to  farm  crops  as  chickens,  although 
if  streams  or  wet  fields  are  included  within  their 
range  a  considerable  portion  of  their  time  is  given 
to  hunting  food  in  these  places. 

Those  who  enter  into  duck-raising  extensively 
rear  the  fowls  almost  exclusively  for  meat.  The 
eggs  produced  by  extensive  duck-raisers  are  not 
put  on  the  market  as  food  to  any  great  extent,  in 
competition  with  eggs  that  are  produced  cheaper 
by  the  noted  egg  breeds  of  hens.  Ducks  can  seldom 
successfully  compete  with  hens  for  egg  production. 

Many  farmers  prefer,  for  various  reasons,  to 
keep  ducks  rather  than  hens.  It  is  well  known 
that  ducks  are  comparatively  free  from  disease 
and  are  not  nearly  so  likely  to  be  troubled  with 
vermin  as  are  hens.  This  is  of  considerable  impor- 
tance on  many  farms  where  the  fowls  are  not  given 
much  care  and  attention. 

Ducks  are  much  more  easily  confined  than 
hens.  A  fence  two  or  three  feet  high  should  suffice 
for  them  under  all  ordinary  conditions,  particularly 


258  Farm  Poultry 

for  those  breeds  which  are  the  most  profitable 
for  farm  use.  It  is  true  that  some  of  the  less  profit- 
able breeds,  so  far  as  meat  production  is  concerned, 
are  able  to  use  their  wings  to  good  advantage 
and  are  quite  as  troublesome  to  keep  within  inclo- 
sures  as  Mediterranean  fowls.  Another  reason 
why  farmers  frequently  prefer  ducks  to  hens,  is 
that  the  young  grow  much  more  rapidly.  Those 
who  make  a  practice  of  fattening  young  ducks 
for  the  market,  expect  to  secure  birds  that  will 
weigh  four  and  one-half  or  five  pounds  at  nine  or  ten 
weeks  of  age,  while  good  chickens  would  weigh  only 
about  half  as  much. 

Ducks  are  adapted  to  the  various  parts  of  the 
country  where  chickens  thrive  well.  They  may 
be  reared  under  a  great  variety  of  conditions  as 
regards  climate  and  exposure.  Because  ducks, 
in  a  state  of  nature,  select  shallow  water  or  marshy 
land  as  their  feeding-ground  and  largely  prefer 
bodies  of  water  to  dry  land,  it  is  thought  by  many 
that  streams  or  ponds  are  necessary  for  the  suc- 
cessful rearing  of  domesticated  birds.  However, 
many  of  the  most  successful  duck-raisers,  who 
produce  large  numbers  of  young  birds  for  the 
market,  do  not  depend  on  streams  or  ponds  of 
water  for  their  fowls.  It  is  true  that  the  plumage 
of  both  young  and  old  birds  will  be  kept  in  a 
somewhat  cleaner  condition  if  the  ducks  have 
access  to  ponds  or  streams,  but  this  is  a  matter 


Breeds  of  Ducks  259 

of  minor  importance  in  the  rearing  of  ducks  for 
the  market.  Some  hold  that  if  the  breeding  ducks 
have  access  to  water,  a  larger  proportion  of  fertile 
eggs  is  secured.  Other  breeders,  however,  are  able 
to  conduct  their  business  satisfactorily  without  such 
water,  and  consequently  it  may  be  said  that  the 
value  of  ponds  or  running  water  for  breeding  ducks 
may  be  somewhat  questionable. 

DUCKS — BREEDS 

Ten  breeds  of  ducks  are  described  in  the  Ameri- 
can Standard  of  Perfection;  viz.,  the  Pekin,  Ayles- 
bury,  Rouen,  Cayuga,  Muscovy,  East  Indian, 
Call,  Crested,  Indian  Runner  and  Swedish.  Of 
these,  the  first  four  may  be  mentioned  as  the  profit- 
able breeds  for  farm  use.  While  the  Muscovy 
ducks  are  the  largest,  yet  they  are  not  the  most 
profitable  for  farmers.  The  East  Indian  and  Call 
ducks  are  too  small  to  be  most  profitable.  They 
have  not  been  bred  for  eggs  or  meat  and  are  con- 
sidered as  fancy  fowls.  They  occupy  a  similar  posi- 
tion among  ducks  to  that  which  bantams  occupy 
among  chickens. 

Pekin. — The  white  Pekins  undoubtedly  occupy 
a  foremost  position  as  to  popularity.  Without 
doubt,  a  larger  number  of  White  Pekins  are  reared 
for  market  than  of  any  other  breed.  They  are 
pure  white,  large,  and  are  excellent  layers.  They 


260  Farm  Poultry 

are  considered  hardy  and  are  easily  reared.  They 
mature  early  and  are  especially  prized  for  the 
production  of  young  birds  for  market.  When 
walking  they  assume  a  more  upright  position  than 
do  the  ducks  of  most  other  breeds.  The  Pekins 


FIG.  84.   White  Pekin  drake,  young  (one-eighth  size). 

are  largely  reared  by  extensive  duck-raisers  who 
make  a  specialty  of  the  so-called  "green  ducks;" 
that  is,  young  birds  that  will  weigh  about  five 
pounds  apiece  when  not  more  than  ten  weeks 
old.  The  standard  weight  for  Pekins  is  9  pounds 
for  the  drake  and  8  for  the  duck. 

Aylesbury. — The  Aylesburys  probably  rank  next 


Pekins  and  Aylesburys  261 

to  the  Pekins  in  popularity.  In  general  appear- 
ance they  closely  resemble  the  Pekins,  but  may 
be  distinguished  by  their  carriage.  The  Ayles- 
burys have  the  same  weight  as  the  Pekins.  They 
have  the  power  of  adapting  themselves  readily 
to  the  various  conditions  under  which  ducks  are 
reared.  They  are  considered  even  more  hardy 


FIG.  85.   White  Pekin  duck,  young  (one-ninth  size). 

and  prolific  than  the  Pekins.  Some  practical  duck 
raisers  sometimes  introduce  an  Aylesbury  cross 
on  their  Pekin  stock  to  increase  vigor  and  pro- 
lificacy. For  market  purposes  the  white  breeds 
(Pekin  and  Aylesbury)  are  preferred  to  the  colored 
ones,  because  white  young  birds  present  a  better 
appearance  when  dressed  than  do  those  of  colored 
breeds. 

Rouen. — The   Rouens   are   especially   prized   as 


262  Farm  Poultry 

table  fowls.  As  producers  of  fine-grained,  deli- 
cate flesh,  these  fowls  are  not  surpassed  by  any  of 
the  so-called  useful  farm  breeds.  The  Rouens 
resemble  the  wild  Mallards  in  color,  the  resem- 
blance between  the  drakes  being  most  marked. 
The  Rouens  are  hardy,  prolific,  and  of  gentle  dis- 
position. Young  birds  may  be  kept  in  rather  large 


FIG.  86.    Rouen  drake  (one-eighth  size). 

flocks  without  the  danger  of  stampeding  that 
is  so  troublesome  with  the  Pekins.  The  standard 
weight  for  the  Rouens  is  the  same  as  that  for  Pekins, 
yet  it  is  thought  that  they  do  not  grow  so  rapidly 
as  the  latter.  Extensive  duck-raisers  prefer  the 
Pekins  or  Aylesburys  on  account  of  their  quick 
growth.  However,  the  Rouens  are  most  excellent 
farm  fowls  and  are  highly  prized  on  account  of 
their  hardiness,  prolificacy,  and  gentle  disposition. 


Rouens  and  Black  Cayugas  263 

Black  Cayuga—The  Black  Cayugas  are  rec- 
ognized as  a  distinctively  American  breed.  It  is 
asserted  by  some  that  the  Cayugas  grow  as  rapidly 
and  mature  as  early  as  the  Pekins,  but  those  who 
are  extensively  engaged  in  rearing  ducks  invari- 
ably choose  one  of  the  white  breeds.  The  Cayugas 
are  profitable  farm  ducks.  They  thrive  well  in 


FIG.  87.   Rouen  duck  (one-eighth  size). 

rather  close  confinement,  are  hardy,  gentle,  and 
do  not  care  to  wander  so  far  from  home  as  some 
other  breeds.  The  standard  weight  -for  these  is 
8  pounds  for  the  drake  and  7  for  the  duck. 

Muscovy  ducks. — These  are  the  largest  of  any 
of  the  breeds  mentioned,  but,  for  various  rea- 
sons, are  not  such  profitable  farm  fowls  as  others. 
When  compared  with  the  Pekins  or  Rouens,  the 
Muscovies  are  not  so  good  layers.  They  are  not 


264  Farm  Poultry 

so  easily  confined.  Muscovy  ducks  are  often 
troublesome  in  the  poultry  yard  on  account  of 
their  disposition  to  attack  other  fowls,  both  young 
and  old.  On  account  of  their  disposition  to  fly 
they  are  not  easily  kept  within  inclosures. 

Call  ducks. — Call  ducks  are  bred  chiefly  for 
exhibition  purposes.  The  gray  Call  ducks  are  some- 
times bred  for  decoys  and  are  used  by  sports- 
men to  lure  wild  ducks  within  shooting  distances. 
They  are  not  recommended  as  profitable  farm 
fowls. 

DUCKS — FOOD   AND   CARE 

The  natural  food  of  the  duck  differs  in  some 
respects  from  that  of  the  hen.  While  ducks,  like 
hens,  eat  a  great  variety  of  food,  yet,  because  the 
duck  is  not  possessed  of  a  distinct  crop,  the  food 
is  passed  more  directly  to  the  digestive  organs 
and  does  not  undergo  so  complete  a  softening 
process  as  that  consumed  by  the  hen.  It  is,  there- 
fore, of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  food  be 
consumed  in  a  soft  condition.  In  nature  the  duck 
gathers  a  large  proportion  of  its  food  from  streams, 
ponds,  or  marshy  places.  This  food  consists  of 
the  young,  growing  shoots  and  roots  of  water  plants, 
snails  and  the  larvae  of  various  water  insects,  together 
with  small  fish  and  other  aquatic  life.  Those  who 
have  made  a  success  of  rearing  ducks  on  an  extended 
scale  have  learned  a  valuable  lesson  from  nature 


Food  for  Ducks 


265 


and  give  to  their  young,  growing  ducks  very  little 
or  no  hard  food.  While  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  ration  will  consist  of  grain,  it  is  ground  and 
moistened  with  water  or  milk  and  fed  in  a  soft 
condition. 


FIG.  88.   View  on  Wm.  H.  Truslow's  duck  farm,  East  Stroudsburg,  Pa., 
showing  arrangement  of  yards  and  manner  of  supplying  water.  • 

It  is  important  in  duck-rearing  to  secure  the 
greatest  degree  of  cleanliness,  although  this  is 
somewhat  more  difficult  than  with  hens.  Where 
ducks  are  kept  in  confinement  in  comparatively 
small  pens  or  yards,  it  will  sometimes  be  found 
impossible  to  prevent  the  runs  from  becoming  foul, 
though  occasional  cultivation  will  aid  materially 
in  keeping  the  yards  clean  and  in  providing  a  sani- 


266 


Farm  Poultry 


tary  home  for  the  occupants.  Poultrymen  use 
various  disinfectants  and  absorbents  in  the  yards 
in  order  to  keep  them  as  clean  as  possible.  Yards 
that  are  not  in  use  all  the  year  should  be  planted 
to  some  crop  if  an  opportunity  is  afforded.  Those 


FIG.  89.   Another  view  on  Mr.  Truslow's  duck  farm,  showing  the  track 
on  which  a  car  of  feed  is  pushed  from  pen  to  pen  at  feeding  time. 

poultrymen  who  make  a  specialty  of  producing 
young  ducks  for  the  market  make  a  practice  of 
sowing  the  yards  and  runs  to  some  quick-growing 
crop  as  soon  as  the  yards  are  vacant.  Rye  is 
often  used  for  this  purpose.  During  the  rearing 
season,  gypsum,  sawdust,  sifted  coal  ashes,  and 
other  absorbents  are  freely  used  in  those  parts 


Food  and  Care  267 

of    the   yards   that   are    most   frequented    by   the 
ducks. 

Young  ducks  should  be  fed  from  a  shallow 
trough,  which  should  be  kept  as  clean  as  possible. 
(See  Fig.  90.)  Pure  water  and  clean  yards  are  prom- 
inent essentials  in  suc- 
cessful duck-rearing.  It 
is  true  that  ducks  will 
make  small  ponds  and 

,    ,  ,  FIG.  90.   A  shallow  feeding-trough. 

streams    muddy    and 

more  or  less  filthy  when  they  have  access  to  them,  yet 
those  that  are  confined  in  yards  without  a  running 
stream  should  be  supplied  with  pure  drinking-water. 
If  the  young  ducks  do  not  have  opportunity 
to  obtain  for  themselves  green  and  •  animal  food, 
it  should  be  supplied  to  them.  Specialists  fre- 
quently feed  young,  rapidly  growing  ducks  a  ration 
that  consists  of  10  or  20  per  cent  animal  meal. 
Rations  which  contain  considerable  animal  meal 
have  proved  superior  to  a  purely  vegetable  diet. 
"Rations  containing  animal  food  proved  very 
much  superior  for  ducklings  to  rations  of  vege- 
table origin  which  had,  according  to  the  ordinary 
methods  of  estimation,  practically  the  same  nutri- 
tive value.  A  ration  of  vegetable  food  supplemented 
by  bone  ash  proved  much  inferior  to  another  ration 
of  similar  'composition/  in  which  three-eighths 
of  the  protein  came  from  animal  food."* 

*  Summary  of  Bulletin  No.   171,  New  York  Experiment  Station. 


268 


Farm  Poultry 


If  the  ducklings  are  confined  in  comparatively 
small  yards,  it  is  best  to  provide  some  shade  for 
them,  particularly  during  the  hottest  months. 
Green  food  fed  to  ducks  confined  in  yards  should 
be  cut  fine  in  a  feed  cutter.  Almost 
any  green,  succulent  food  will  be 
readily  eaten.  Rye,  clover,  alfalfa, 
Canada  field  peas,  and  corn  make 


FIG.  91.   A  V-shaped  water  trough. 


FIG.  92.   A  shallow  water  trough 


excellent  food  if  finely  cut.  Ducks  will  readily  eat  the 
plant,  stalk  and  all,  in  this  condition,  while  chick- 
ens will  select  the  leaves  and  other  tender  parts 
and  reject  the  more  woody  portions  of  the  stalks. 
The  green  material  may  be  fed  alone  or  mixed 
with  the  moistened  ground  food.  The  latter  may 
consist  of  wheat  bran,  corn  meal  and  ground  oats, 
the  hulls  of  the  oats  having  been  removed.  Various 
kinds  of  ground  grains  may  be  employed,  although 
those  mentioned  are  used  most  by  experienced  men. 


Care  of  Ducks  and  Geese  269 

Ducklings  of  some  breeds  appear  to  be  quite 
fearless  in  some  respects,  yet  under  other  condi- 
tions they  are  easily  frightened,  and,  if  a  consid- 
erable number  are  kept  in  one  yard  or  pen,  the 
injury  done  by  "stampeding"  is  sometimes  con- 
siderable. Pekin  ducklings  are  particularly  liable 
to  injury  from  this  cause.  Some  extensive  duck- 
raisers  make  a  practice  of  lighting  artificially  that 
part  of  the  yard  occupied  by  the  fowls  during 
the  night  as  a  partial  safeguard  against  this 
trouble. 

GEESE — GENERAL   DISCUSSION 

The  rearing  of  geese  is  not  so  extensive  a  busi- 
ness as  that  of  raising  ducks.  The  conditions 
requisite  for  the  successful  raising  of  geese  are 
very  different  from  those  for  ducks.  The  rear- 
ing of  geese  is  not  in  the  hands  of  a  comparatively 
few  extensive  raisers.  Geese  are  still  raised  on 
many  farms  in  comparatively  small  flocks.  The 
fact  that  geese  require  very  much  more  room  than 
ducks  has  probably  been  an  important  factor 
in  keeping  the  business  of  rearing  them  in  the 
hands  of  farmers  who  go  into  the  enterprise  in 
a  moderate  way.  While  ducks  are  frequently  reared 
successfully  without  water,  except  as  it  may  be 
necessary  for  drinking,  yeb  geese  thrive  best  where 
ponds'  or  streams  are  provided.  While  ducks 
may  thrive  under  practically  the  same  condi- 


270  Farm  Poultry 

tions  as  geese,  yet  the  conditions  under  which  geese 
do  best  are  not  necessary  for  successful  duck- 
raising.  Fields  which  are  not  suitable  for  culti- 
vation on  account  of  springs  or  streams  make 
good  pastures  for  geese.  A  comparatively  low, 
springy  or  marshy  land  may  be  used  to  good  advan- 
tage if  some  part  of  the  run  is  comparatively  high 
and  dry.  Geese  do  not  thrive  so  well  in  large  flocks 
as  ducks  do.  There  seems  to  be  a  somewhat  gen- 
eral law  ;which  may  be  applied  to  all  farm  stock 
as  regards  the  size  of  flocks  or  herds.  The  smaller 
animals,  as  a  rule,  thrive  much  better  in  large 
flocks  than  do  the  larger  breeds  or  varieties.  It 
is  true  that  large  herds  of  cattle  are  maintained  on 
some  of  the  great  cattle  ranches  in  the  prairie 
countries,  but  an  almost  unlimited  range  is  given 
them. 

Geese  do  not  require  a  great  deal  of  attention. 
After  the  young  are  a  week  or  so  old,  they  are  able 
to  care  for  themselves  largely,  if  a  good  range  is 
given.  The  food  of  geese  is  largely  grass,  although 
insects  and  other  low  forms  of  animal  life  are  eaten 
readily  and  are  essential. 

GEESE BREEDS 

The  most  common  breeds  of  the  pure-bred 
geese  are  the  Toulouse,  African,  Embden,  Chinese, 
Canada  or  Wild,  and  Egyptian.  Many  geese 


Toulouse  Geese  271 

throughout  the  country  are  of  no  particular  breed. 
It  is  probable  that  these  geese  have  descended 
from  those  imported  by  settlers  at  an  early  date 
in  the  history  of  the  country.  In  some  instances 
improved  breeds  have  been  crossed  on  these  common 
or  mongrel  geese,  but  many  flocks  are  still  main- 
tained that  are  of  no  particular  breed,  neither 
color  nor  conformation  indicating  that  they  con- 
tain any  considerable  proportion  of  blood  of  improved 
kinds. 

Toulouse. — The  Toulouse  geese  are  large,  mas- 
sive, and  probably  attain  a  greater  weight  than 
those  of  any  other  breed.  I.  K.  Felch  states*  that 
geese  of  sixty  pounds  weight  per  pair  have  been 
exhibited  in  American  exhibitions. 

The  American  Poultry  Association  has  adopted 
the  following  as  standard  weights:  Adult  gander 
25  and  adult  goose  20  pounds. 

"  Toulouse  geese  usually  lay  more  eggs  in  a 
season  than  Embden  or  African  geese,  but  not  so 
many  as  the  best  China  geese.  They  are  nearer 
non-sitting  than  any  other  variety,  but  some  indi- 
viduals make  good  mothers.  The  goslings  are 
greenish  yellow  in  color,  generally  hardy  and  vig- 
orous. They  are  quiet  and  peaceable,  and  more 
easily  confined  by  stone  fences  than  other  breeds, 
and  would  be  more  likely  to  be  contented  in  close 
quarters.  Toulouse  geese  are  gray  in  color,  with 

*  "Poultry  Culture,"  page  404. 


272 


Farm  Poultry 


a  square,  massive  body,  carried  fairly  horizontal, 
the  abdominal  pouch,  or  loose  folds  of  skin  between 
and  behind  the  legs,  almost  or  quite  touching  the 
ground."* 

It   is    often   difficult    to    distinguish   the   sexes, 


FIG.  93.   A  pair  of  gray  Toulouse  geese. — From  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64. — Howard. 

as  the  gander  and  goose  have  exactly  the  same 
color  and  the  same  feathering. 

Embden. — The  Embdens  very  much  resemble 
the  Toulouse  in  general  form;  they  are;  however, 
pure  white  throughout,  which  enables  one  readily 
to  distinguish  one  breed  from  the  other.  The, 
Embdens  do  not  have  the  great  abdominal  pouch 
of  the  Toulouse,  although  it  is  sometimes  dis- 

*  Report,  1897,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Embden  and  African  Geese 


273 


tinctly  developed.  "These  geese  are  inclined  to 
lay  a  little  earlier  than  the  Toulouse,  and  their 
eggs  average  a  trifle  heavier,  but  they  do  not  lay 
quite  so  many  eggs,  and  are  much  more  persistent 
sitters.  They  make  excellent  mothers.  The  gos- 
lings when  hatched  are  of  a  rich  yellow  color,  which 


FIG.  94.   Gray  wild  goose. — From  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64. — Howard. 

changes  to  white  as  the  quill  feathers  grow.  They 
are  generally  hardy  and  grow  rapidly."* 

The  standard  weight  for  geese  is  20  pounds 
for  adult  gander  and  18  pounds  for  adult  goose. 

African. — "Gray  African  geese  are  by  many 
raisers  considered  the  most  profitable  of  all  geese 
to  keep.  They  grow  the  heaviest  in  the  shortest 
space  of  time,  and  are  ready  for  market  in  ten  weeks, 

*Report,  1897,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


274  Farm  Poultry 

weighing,  at  that  age,  between  eight  and  ten  pounds. 
They  are  very  much  like  the  Pekin  duck  in  this 
respect,  and,  as  compared  with  other  geese,  give 
the  most  satisfactory  returns  for  the  least  labor 
and  time  spent  in  growing  them."5 

The  African  geese  are  called  good  layers,  and 
are   especially   prized   as   table    fowls.     The   flesh 


FIG.  95.   A  pair  of  gray  African  geese. — From  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64. — Howard. 

is  good  flavored  and  not  so  coarse  fibered  as  the 
Toulouse.  The  young  are  hardy  and  grow  rapidly. 
The  voice  and  notes  of  the  African  goose  resemble 
those  of  the  China  goose  quite  as  much  as  those 
of  the  Toulouse  or  Embden. 

Chinese. — Individuals  of  this  breed  are  several 
pounds    smaller    than    those    of    the    breeds    pre- 

*Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Chinese  and   Wild  Geese 


275 


viously  described.  They  are  highly  prized  for  the 
quality  of  their  flesh  and  are  recognized  as  excel- 
lent layers.  Their  lack  of  size,  however,  has  made 
them  unpopular  except  for  exhibition  purposes. 

They  are  considered  an  ornamental  variety  and 
are  small  or  medium  in  size.   They  have  long,  arched 


FIG.  96.   Wild  and  African  cross. — From  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64. — Howard. 

necks  and  bear  a  knob  at  the  base  of  the  beak 
which  gives  them  a  peculiar  appearance. 


WILD,    OR   CANADIAN   GOOSE 

These  geese  are  bred  mostly  for  exhibition  pur- 
poses and  for  parks.  They  are  of  medium  size  and 
are  not  bred  for  utility.  They  have  long,  slim  necks 


276  Farm  Poultry 

and  small  heads.    They,  of  course,  retain  the  voice 
of  the  wild  geese,  which  adds  to  their  attractiveness. 


GEESE — FOOD   AND   CARE 

The  first  food  for  young  goslings  in  nature  is 
grass,  and  breeders  prefer  to  provide  this  for  the 
young  of  the  domesticated  geese.  Grass  at  pas- 
ture is  recommended.  Moistened  corn  meal  is 
also  recommended.  Grit  in  the  form  of  sand  or 
fine  gravel  should  be  provided.  Cooked  vege- 
tables make  an  excellent  food  and  may  be  fed 
in  the  form  of  a  mash.  Bran,  middlings,  and  corn 
meal,  mixed  with  cooked  vegetables,  are  highly 
recommended.  As  with  ducks  and  chickens,  it 
has  been  found  best  to  give  some  animal  food. 
Animal  meal  mixed  with  the  moistened  corn 
meal  is  recommended  for  young  geese  by 
many  breeders.  The  food  of  breeding  geese  should 
consist  chiefly  of  natural  food  gathered  from  the 
pasture.  Insects,  snails,  and  other  primal  life 
are  then  consumed.  If  animal  food  is  not  abundant, 
it  may  be  supplied  artificially  to  good  advantage 
in  the  form  of  animal  meal.  It  is  essential  to  per- 
mit breeding  geese  to  roam  at  will  over  areas  of 
considerable  size.  For  fattening  geese,  it  is  a  gen- 
eral practice  to  confine  them  somewhat  closely 
in  order  to  prevent  them  from  taking  too  much 
exercise.  Europeans,  who  have  become  so  noted  for 


PdU  de  foie  gras  277 

fattening  geese,  take  great  pains  to  keep  them  quiet. 
Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  avoid  any 
disturbance  of  the  flock.  Corn  meal  may  form  the 
larger  portion  of  the  daily  ration  for  fattening 
geese.  Meat  scrap  may  enter  into  the  ration  up 
to  one-fifth  of  the  total  amount,  for  immature 
fowls. 

Pate  de  foie  gras. — In  districts  where  the  pro- 
duction of  "pate  de  foie  gras"  has  developed  into 
an  industry,  particularly  about  Strasburg,  Ger- 
many, the  geese  are  confined  in  individual  stalls 
so  closely  that  they  are  compelled  to  remain  in 
a  sitting  or  standing  posture.  The  stalls  are  nar- 
row, so  that  the  birds  are  not  even  permitted  to 
turn  around.  They  are  removed  from  this  stall 
twice  each  day  and  fed,  by  the  cramming  process, 
whole  Indian  corn  that  has  been  thoroughly  soaked. 
The  corn  is  forced  into  the  mouth  by  hand  and 
pushed  into  the  throat  by  the  finger  and  is  worked 
down  the  neck  by  rubbing  externally.  The  geese 
are  given  plenty  of  pure  water  and  grit  in  the 
form  of  fine  gravel.  The  close  confinement  and 
abundance  of  corn  cause  the  livers  to  grow  abnor- 
mally large,  sometimes  weighing  as  much  as  three 
pounds  each. 

It  is  said  that  expert  feeders  will  produce  large 
livers  in  over  80  per  cent  of  the  geese  fed.  The 
livers  when  prepared  are  known  commercially 
as  "pate  de  foie  gras,"  and  are  esteemed  a  great 


278  Farm  Poultry 

delicacy.  The  feeders  who  sell  livers  to  those  who 
prepare  them  for  the  trade  sometimes  receive  as 
much  as  $1.50  per  pound.  In  some  districts,  it  is 
reported  that  great  stress  is  laid  on  the  grit  which 
is  furnished  these  fattening  geese.  Small  pieces  of 
antimony  ore  are  said  to  be  highly  prized  for  this 
purpose.  In  some  places  the  geese  are  suspended 
in  nets,  which  prevent  them  from  taking  exercise. 

Houses. — Geese  require  inexpensive  and  small 
houses.  ?  Comparatively  rude  and  simple  struc- 
tures answer  every  purpose.  Simple  shelter  from 
the  storm  is  all  that  is  necessary  during  the  larger 
part  of  the  year.  While  they  require  larger  houses 
than  ducks,  and  do  not  stand  crowding  to  so  great 
an  extent,  yet  the  buildings  need  not  be  expensive. 
Geese  will  require  about  the  same  space  in  the 
building  per  pound  of  live  weight  as  ducks,  but 
being  much  larger,  require  larger  buildings  for  the 
same  number  of  fowls. 

Laying  qualities. — Geese  are  long-lived.  It  is 
stated  on  good  authority  that  they  frequently 
live  from  thirty  to  fifty  years,  and  individuals 
have  lived  to  be  more  than  a  hundred  years  old. 
The  females  retain  their  breeding  qualities  through 
life,  yet  it  is  recommended  to  keep  only  young  gan- 
ders. Those  from  three  to  five  years  of  age  are 
preferred.  Geese  are  good  sitters  and  make  good 
mothers.  In  this  respect  they  still  retain  well 
their  natural  instincts.  Under  ordinary  conditions, 


Laying  and  Incubation  279 

a  goose  will  lay  from  twelve  to  twenty  eggs  before 
incubation.  If  the  eggs  be  removed  from  the  nest, 
two  or  three  sittings  of  eggs  may  be  produced  by 
one  female  before  incubation  will  be  persisted  in. 
Usually  it  is  recommended  not  to  attempt  to  secure 
more  than  three  sittings  from  one  female  before  she 
is  permitted  to  incubate.  In  practice,  the  first 
eggs  are  usually  set  under  hens,  the  goose  hatching 
the  eggs  that  are  laid  last. 

Geese  frequently  begin  laying  early  in  the  spring, 
sometimes  as  early  as  February.  Many  instances 
have  been  noted  where  the  laying  commenced  in 
in  the  late  fall  or  early  winter,  but  would  not  con- 
tinue through  the  winter.  In  such  instances  the 
laying  would  begin  again  in  the  spring. 

The  period  of  incubation  is  stated  by  various 
authors  to  be  from  twenty-eight  to  thirty-one 
days,  which  without  doubt  will  represent  the  limits 
under  ordinary  conditions.  When  eggs  are  placed 
under  hens  they  are  not  covered  quite  so  well  as 
when  placed  under  the  mother  goose,  and  incuba- 
tion therefore  may  be  delayed  a  little. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

TURKEYS,   GUINEAS,  PEAFOWLS,  PIGEONS 

OF  the  species  of  poultry  aside  from  the  hen, 
ducks  and  geese,  none  has  risen  to  great  popularity 
in  North  America  except  the  turkey.  The  various 
kinds  of  pheasants  and  peafowls  are  grown  more  for 
fancy  than  for  profit.  At  all  events,  they  are  not 
to  be  considered  as  important  farm  fowls. 

TURKEYS 

The  wild  turkey  is  a  native  of  North  America 
and  still  .abounds  in  the  natural  forests  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Virginia  and  other  Atlantic  states.  It 
is  also  found  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  and  is 
abundant  in  some  of  the  western  states,  but  its 
principal  home  in  the  eastern  United  States  at 
the  present  time  is  in  the  mountainous  regions  of 
the  Atlantic  states.  Like  many  other  species  of 
game  it  is  rapidly  disappearing,  due  to  the  great 
changes  made  by  man  in  his  onward  march  of 
civilization.  Man  is  a  great  disturbing  force  of 
nature's  equilibrium  when  he  removes  the  forests 
in  order  to  prepare  the  land  for  cultivation.  He 

(280) 


Wild  Turkeys  281 

not  only  destroys  the  home  of  the  game  by  removing 
the  woods  but  causes  frequent  forest  fires,  which 
are  destructive  at  the  brooding  season.  Probably 
the  number  of  wild  turkeys  is  diminishing,  yet, 
owing  to  their  shy  nature,  they  are  not  likely  to 
become  entirely  extinct  for  many  years. 

The  wild  turkeys  that  are  now  found  in  the 
forests  of  North  America  are  those  which,  have 
been  strong  enough  to  withstand  the  unfavorable 
conditions  to  which  they  have  been  subjected  and 
which  have  escaped  their  natural  enemies.  In 
other  words,  they  furnish  a  most  excellent  illus- 
tration of  the  "survival  of  the  fittest."  Persons  who 
nave  had  experience  in  breeding  wild  turkeys  in 
confinement  are  convinced  that  they  will  do  well 
and  retain  good  breeding  qualities  on  less  food  than 
will  be  required  to  keep  domesticated  turkeys  in 
the  same  condition. 

Wild  turkeys  appear  to  be  somewhat  taller  in 
proportion  to  their  weight  than  domesticated  ones. 
"They  thrive  and  keep  in  good  condition  on  less 
food  than  the  domestic  turkey.  Their  slender, 
alert  appearance  is  striking  to  the  most  careless 
observer.  Their  breadth  of  shoulder,  deep  chest 
and  firm  step  'are  noticeable  when  they  are  compared 
with  the  domestic  turkey.  The  head  is  small  in 
proportion  to  the  body,  and  has  a  clean,  game-like 
appearance.  The  eyes  are  large,  bright  hazel,  and 
full  of  intelligence  and  suspicion.  .  .  .  Gobblers, 


282  Farm  Poultry 

when  full  grown,  are  about  four  feet  high  and  weigh, 
according  to  the  section  of  the  country  they  are 
taken  in,  from  15  to  20  pounds  each.  They  do  not 
get  their  full  growth  until  the  end  of  the  third  year, 
and  increase  in  weight  and  beauty  for  several  years 
after  that.  Gobblers  weighing  36  and  40  pounds  have 
often  been  shot.  .  .  .  Wild  gobblers  mate  Hter 
and  the  hens  lay  later  than  domestic  turkeys.  The 
flesh  of  wild  birds  is  of  excellent  flavor  and  is  more 
delicate  and  juicy  than  that  of  domestic  turkeys."* 
The  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station  speaks 
as  follows  of  wild  turkey  crosses  :f  " Where  wild 
turkeys  are  plenty,  crosses  between  wild  and  domes- 
tic birds  frequently  occur  without  design  on  the 
part  of  the  owner  of  the  latter.  Scores  of  cases 
are  recorded  where  a  wild  gobbler  from  the  woods 
has  taken  possession  of  a  flock  of  common  turkeys, 
sometimes  after  first  battling  with  and  killing  the 
domestic  gobbler.  The  results  of  such  a  cross  in 
almost  every  case  have  been  so  satisfactory  that 
such  matings  are  much  desired  by  turkey-raisers 
in  those  sections,  and  young  wild  birds  are  caught 
for  this  purpose  and  brought  up  with  common 
young  turkeys.  Very  often  nests  of  wild  turkey 
eggs  are  found  in  the  woods  and  hatched  on  the 
farm.  These  domesticated  wild  birds  usually  persist 
in  roosting  separate  from  the  others,  generally  in 

*  Bulletin  25,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  p.  116. 
tSame,  p.  119. 


Wild   Turkey  Crosses  283 

the  woods  or  on  the  top  of  a  house  or  barn.  When 
raised  from  the  egg  they  become  more  gentle  and 
fearless  than  the  domestic  turkey,  but  if  chased 
or  frightened  they  recover  their  wild  habits  very 
quickly.  Wild  turkey  crosses  are  hardier  and  health- 
ier than  common  turkeys  and  rarely  have  disease. 
Half-blood  hens  are  generally  too  wild,  but  half- 
blood  gobblers  are  not  so  wild  and  are  suitable 
for  crossing  with  domestic  hens.  A  small  proportion 
of  wild  blood  improves  the  size,  form,  and  general 
appearance,  as  well  as  the  vigor,  without  being  a 
disadvantage  in  any  way.  A  quarter-wild  cross  is 
better  for  practical  breeding  than  a  pure  wild  or 
half- wild  bird.  Half -wild  crosses  do  well  if  allowed  a 
large  range,  but  are  not  well  suited  to  woody  lands 
or  as  easily  kept  on  small  places  as  the  domestic 
turkey. 

"Wild  turkey  hens  under  domestication  and  wild 
first-cross  hens  often  disappear  in  the  spring  and 
are  not  seen  until  fall,  when  they  usually  return  to 
then-  own  home  with  a  brood  of  nearly  full-grown 
turkeys.  Half-blood  mothers  make  their  young 
too  wild.  Half-bloods  reared  by  domestic  turkey 
hens  are  not  much  inclined  to  stray.  Quarter-bloods 
under  certain  conditions  may  be  as  wild  as  the  wild 
bird  of  the  woods. 

"The  flock  of  half-wild  birds  reared  at  the  Sta- 
tion this  season  was  very  tame  and  unsuspicious 
until  several  were  snared  for  exhibition  at  the  Kings- 


284  Farm  Poultry 

ton  Fair.  Since  then  they  have  been  so  shy  that 
we  were  unable  to  secure  another  lot.  They  take 
flight  immediately  if  a  suspicious  movement  is 
made.  They  will  be  more  easily  caught  later  in 
the  season.  The  wild  blood  gives  the  cross  an 
astonishing  ability  to  care  for  themselves.  It  is 
apt  to  have  the  strongest  influence  in  breeding.  If 
first  crosses  are  bred  together  the  stock  resembles 
the  pure  wild,  and  after  several  generations  cannot 
be  distinguished  from  the  pure  wild  by  good  judges. 
The  older  the  bird  grows  the  more  he  shows  the  wild 
blood.  Crosses  have  much  of  the  superior  game  flavor 
of  the  wild  and  command  a  higher  price  for  the  table. 

"Some  wild  bronze  crosses  that  are  half  and  three- 
quarters  wild  blood  are  as  large  as  the  pure  bronze 
turkeys.  Several  years7  crossing,  however,  with  the 
selection  of  the  largest  for  breeding  each  season, 
gives  the  greatest  size."* 

Domesticated  turkeys  partake  largely  of  the 
nature  of  the  wild  stock  from  which  they  have  de- 
scended. Many  of  the  domesticated  flocks  have  been 
crossed  with  the  wild  fowl  within  recent  years. 

Turkeys  that  are  commonly  reared  for  profit  on 
farms  are  of  a  roving  disposition  and  do  not  thrive 
well  when  closely  confined.  On  this  account,  they 
are  not  suited  to  rearing  in  large  numbers  on  small 
areas.  Owners  of  small  farms  or  village  lots,  there- 
fore, are  practically  debarred  from  rearing  large 

*  Bulletin  No.  25,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Turkeys — Varieties  285 

numbers  of  turkeys,  particularly  if  they  are  to  be 
kept  from  trespassing  on  the,  holdings  of  their 
neighbors.  While  the  mother  turkey  with  her  brooa 
may  be  confined  in  very  limited  areas  for  a  time 
during  the  brooding  season,  yet  as  the  young  become 
older  and  are  prepared  to  seek  their  own  living,  they 
thrive  much  better  if  close  restrictions  are  not  en- 
forced. Whoever  attempts  to  rear  turkeys  in  con- 
siderable numbers  should  therefore  plan  to  give 
them  a  wide  range,  particularly  during  the  latter 
part  of  their  growth.  They  are  not  able  to  adapt 
themselves  to  artificial  conditions  so  well  as  chickens 
or  ducks  or  even  geese. 

In  North  America  there  are  two  distinct  species 
of  native  turkeys;  one  inhabits  the  United  States 
and  Mexico,  the  other  is  found  in  Honduras.  The 
latter  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  ocellated  turkey. 
The  former  has  been  separated  into  several  varieties, 
the  best  known  of  which  are  the  Mexican  turkey, 
from  which  the  common  domesticated  turkey  is 
descended,  and  the  wild  turkey  of  the  eastern  United 
States.  The  Mexican  form  is  somewhat  smaller 
than  the  wild  form  of  the  eastern  United  States. 

TURKEYS — VARIETIES 

The  recognized  varieties  of  the  domestic  turkey 
are  the  Bronze,  Narragansett,  White  Holland,  Buff, 
Slate,  Black,  and  Bourbon. 


286  Farm  Poultry 

The  Bronze. — The  Bronze  is  the  largest  variety. 
The  weight  adopted  by  the  American  Poultry 
Association  is  for  this  turkey,  adult  male  36  pounds, 
adult  female  20  pounds.  The  origin  of  the  variety 
is  obscure.  Some  authorities  maintain  that  it  was 
formed  by  crossing  the  North  American  wild  on 


FIG.  97.   Bronze  turkey,  male. 

the  domesticated  Black.  The  wandering  disposi- 
tion of  the  Bronze  is  thought  to  be  due  to  a  com- 
paratively recent  infusion  of  wild  blood.  This  is 
unquestionably  the  most  popular  variety,  owing 
largely,  no  doubt,  to  its  great  size.  Breeders  and 
judges  of  turkeys  lay  great  stress  on  the  size 
of  the  Bronze.  Correct  plumage  is  not  sufficient 


Varieties  of  Turkeys  287 

to  redeem  an  exhibition  bird  if  it  lacks  in  size. 
(Fig.  97.) 

Narragansett. — This  variety  takes  its  name  from 
Narragansett  Bay  in  Rhode  Island.  This  state 
has  long  been  noted  for  the  large  numbers  and 
excellence  of  the  turkeys  which  it  has  produced.  The 
reputation  of  the  Rhode  Island  turkeys  was  made 
largely  when  the  Narragansetts  were  chiefly  reared. 
In  more  recent  years  the  Bronze  has  supplanted 
the  Narragansetts  to  a  considerable  extent,  which 
was  due  to  the  greater  size  of  the  former,  although 
the  latter  are  not  small  turkeys.  The  Standard 
gives  the  weight  for  Narragansetts  as  30  pounds 
for  the  cock  and  18  for  the  hen.  They  are  of  a  gray 
color,  although  some  bronze  luster  is  seen  on  the 
wings.  They  have  plump,  thick-set  bodies  and  grow 
rapidly.  They  mature  early  and  do  not  roam  so  far 
as  the  Bronze. 

The  White  Holland. — This  variety  is  sometimes 
known  as  the  White  Turkey.  It  is  not  so  popular 
as  some  other  kinds,  yet  in  a  few  localities  it  is  a 
favorite.  Many  breeders  who  have  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  compare  this  turkey  with  others  assert 
that  it  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  kinds.  The  White 
Hollands  grow  rapidly  and  attain  a  heavy  weight  at 
an  early  age. 

"The  White  Hollands  are  perhaps  the  best  lay- 
ers among  turkeys.  It  is  sometimes  reckoned  as 
a  fault  that  few  hens  want  to  hatch  early  in  the 


288  Farm  Poultry 

season,  and  a  large  number  of  eggs  and  no  broody 
hens  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence.  ...  I 
believe  them  to  be  good  turkeys  and  worthy  of 
the  best  efforts  of  the  breeders  and  farmers  in 
general,  and  think  no  one  need  be  seriously  dis- 
appointed in  them  if  he  goes  ahead  properly  and 
knows  what  he  is  doing."*  The  standard  weight 
for  White  Hollands  is  given  for  cock  28  pounds 
and  hen  18  pounds. 

Buff  turkey. — The  Buff  variety  is  thought  by 
many  to  be  the  most  beautiful  of  turkeys.  It  is 
not  known  how  the  variety  originated,  although 
it  was  probably  produced  by  crossing.  The  Buffs 
are  about  the  same  size  as  the  White  Hollands  and 
are  profitable  fowls. 

Slate  turkey. — The  Slate  turkeys  in  many  respects 
are  very  much  like  the  Buffs.  The  color  is  thought 
by  many  to  be  the  chief  difference. 

Neither  of  these  varieties  is  largely  bred,  so 
their  actual  value  as  market  turkeys  has  not  been 
determined.  Some  breeders  speak  highly  of  them 
and,  no  doubt,  they  are  valuable  varieties,  but  there 
seems  to  be  no  indication  that  they  are  supplanting 
either  the  Bronze  or  the  Narragansetts  as  profitable 
fowls  for  the  farmer  and  poultryman. 

Black  turkey. — This  is  an  old  variety.  It  has 
been  bred  in  England  for  a  long  time.  "In  certain 
parts  of  England  it  was,  until  quite  recently,  the 

*Geo.  Enty,  in  "Turkeys  and  How  to  Grow  Them."— Myrick,  p.  28. 


Care  of  Turkeys  289 

favorite  variety,  and  is  known  there  as  the  Black 
Norfolk."* 

Bourbon  Red  turkey. — These  turkeys  take  their 
name  from  Bourbon  County,  Kentucky,  where  it 
is  supposed  they  originated.  In  size  they  compare 
with  the  Narragansetts,  cock  30  and  hen  18  pounds. 
Breeders  make  rather  strong  claims  for  these  fowls, 
yet  it  is  very  doubtful  if  they  are  superior  to  the 
three  first-mentioned  varieties.  It  is,  however, 
an  advantage  oftentimes  to  have  the  different  flocks 
of  a  neighborhood  distinguished  by  variety  char- 
acteristics so  that  they  may  be  most  readily  separated 
should  they  become  mixed. 

TURKEYS — GENERAL   CARE 

At  no  time  in  the  life  of  the  turkey  does  its 
wild  nature  assert  itself  more  than  at  the  laying 
season.  The  domesticated  turkey  hen  still  loves 
secrecy  as  regards  her  nesting-place.  Half-wild 
turkeys,  when  given  their  liberty,  have  frequently 
eluded  all  attempts  on  the  part  of  watchers  to  follow 
them  and  to  locate  their  nests.  Many  successful 
turkey-raisers  who  do  not  keep  the  breeding  fowls 
confined  within  large  inclosures  provide  nesting- 
places  for  them  in  more  or  less  secluded  places.  An 
empty  barrel  turned  on  its  side  or  pieces  of  wide 
boards  nailed  together  so  that  a  low  roof  is  formed 

*  H.  S.  Babcock,  in  "Turkeys  and  How  to  Grow  Them"— Myrick,  p.  22. 


290  Farm  Poultry 

over  a  nest  on  the  ground  answer  the  purpose.  As  a 
good  turkey  hen  will  lay  more  eggs  than  she  can  cover 
well  at  one  sitting,  it  is  customary  to  remove  the 
eggs  from  the  nest  daily  and  to  place  the  first  laid 
under  broody  hens.  The  last  eggs  should  be  given 
the  turkey  hen  to  hatch. 

Some  attempts  have  been  made  to  rear  turkeys 
by  means  of  artificial  incubators  and  brooders,  but 
in  many  instances  the  results  have  been  far  from  satis- 
factory. Most  turkey-raisers  depend  upon  natural 
methods  of  incubation  and  brooding.  Turkey  eggs 
hatch  in  twenty-eight  days. 

Selection  of  breeding  stock. — Many  farmers  un- 
doubtedly make  mistakes  in  selecting  young  and 
immature  birds  for  breeding  stock.  Experienced 
turkey-raisers  insist  on  breeding  from  mature  and 
well-tried  birds.  If  a  hen  proves  to  be  a  good 
breeder  and  a  careful  mother,  she  should-  be  kept  as 
long  as  she  proves  profitable.  The  young  of  mature 
parents  are  thought  to  be  considerably  stronger 
than  those  of  immature  fowls.  Two-  or  three-year- 
old  toms  are  sometimes  preferred  to  older  ones 
on  account  of  the  great  weight  which  older  birds 
attain. 

"A  few  plain  rules  which  may  be  observed  to 
advantage  are  as  follows : 

"First. — Always  use  as  breeders  turkey  hens  over 
one  year  old.  Be  sure  they  are  strong,  healthy,  and 
vigorous,  and  of  good  medium  size.  In  no  instance 


Breeding   Turkeys  291 

select  the  smaller  ones.  Do  not  strive  to  have  them 
unnaturally  large. 

"Second. — The  male  may  be  a  yearling  or  older. 
Do  not  imagine  that  the  large,  overgrown  males  are 
the  best.  Strength,  health,  and  vigor,  with  well- 
proportioned  medium  size  are  the  main  points  of 
excellence. 

"Third. — Avoid  close  breeding.  New  blood  is  of 
vital  importance  to  turkeys.  Better  send  a  thousand 
miles  for  a  new  male  than  to  risk  the  chances  of 
inbreeding.  Secure  one  in  the  fall  so  as  to  be  assured 
of  his  health  and  vigor  prior  to  the  breeding  season."* 

"Mr.  Grinnell,  who  lives  on  a  farm  near  the 
Experiment  Station,  raises  from  50  to  60  turkeys 
every  season.  Others  in  his  neighborhood  have 
poor  success.  He  does  not  believe  in  changing 
gobblers  when  a  good  one  has  been  secured.  When 
he  gets  one  that  sires  good  stock  he  keeps  him  as 
long  as  he  is  good  for  anything.  The  one  he  now 
has  is  four  years  old.  The  hens  also  are  kept  as  long 
as  they  live.  .  .  .  One  hen  that  he  has  had  for 
five  years  was  said  to  have  been  eight  years  old  when 
he  bought  her.  She  still  lays  from  two  to  three  litters 
of  eggs  each  season,  and  her  turkeys  are  larger  than 

the  others."f 

Number  of  females  to  one  male. — The  question  is 
often  asked  as  to  how  many  females  can  be  placed 

*T.  F.  McGrew  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  200. 

t  Bulletin  No.  25,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


292  Farm  Poultry 

with  one  male  for  best  results.  It  will  be  impossible 
to  give  any  inflexible  rule  to  govern  this  phase  of 
the  breeding  operations,  as  freedom  of  exercise, 
strength,  vigor,  etc.,  are  important  factors  bearing 
on  this  question.  In  extreme  cases,  the  results  have 
been  all  that  could  be  desired,  when  twenty  females 
were  placed  with  one  male;  but  under  ordinary 
conditions  it  will  be  safest  if  no  more  than  from  four 
to  eight  females  be  placed  with  one  male. 

Care  and  food  for  the  young. — Newly  hatched 
poults  .are  very  delicate  and  require  close  atten- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  attendant.  First  of  all,  they 
must  be  kept  dry.  Wet  or  damp  quarters  should  be 
avoided.  A  dry,  porous  soil  is  considered  much  more 
satisfactory  than  a  heavy  one,  though  the  latter 
be  underdrained.  " Young  turkeys  should  not  be 
out  in  heavy  showers  until  their  backs  are  well 
covered  with  feathers.  If  they  get  wet,  they  may  die 
from  chill  unless  put  in  a  warm  room  to  dry.  Black 
or  red  pepper  and  ginger  in  the  food  or  drinking- 
water  aid  them  to  overcome  a  chill,  and  are  of  great 
value  on  cold  or  damp  days  and  are  a  preventive 
of  bowel  troubles  in  both  old  and  young  turkeys."* 

For  the  first  few  weeks  the  young  should  be  kept 
in  dry  places  and  not  permitted  to  travel  through 
tall  grass  when  it  is  wet.  During  the  warm  and  dry 
parts  of  the  day  they  may  be  given  a  run  on  short 
grass  or  cultivated  land.  Many  poultrymen  prefer 

*  Bulletin  No.  25,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Care  and.  Food  for   Young   Turkeys 


293 


placing  the  hen  in  a  large,  airy  coop  and  giving  the 
young  a  free  run,  rather  than  to  confine  the  young 
and  give  the  hen  her  freedom.  In  either  case  it  is 
advisable  to  restrict  the  run  of  the  young  for  a  few 
days.  It  should  not  be  omitted  to  move  the  coops 
frequently,  that  the  young  may  be  brooded  on  fresh 
ground. 

The  first  food  should  be  soft  and  easily  digestible. 
Most  turkey-raisers  highly  recommend  hard-boiled 


Fia.  98.  Turkey  house — Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

eggs  chopped  fine.  This  is  a  most  excellent  food,  but 
should  be  fed  in  moderation  and  in  connection  with 
other  soft  foods.  Stale  bread  dipped  in  milk  and 
allowed  to  drain  until  it  becomes  »dry  enough  to 
crumble  is  a  most  excellent  first  food.  This  may  be 
fed  until  the  young  are  several  days  old.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  bread,  or  any  other  food 


294  Farm  Poultry 

for  that  matter,  should  not  be  fed  in  a  sloppy  or 
very  moist  condition.  Coarse  bread  baked  for  the 
purpose,  if  softened  with  milk,  is  highly  prized. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  young  turkeys  are 
seed-  and  insect-eaters  and  not  slop-eaters.  While 
bread,  milk,  and  eggs  contain  the  elements  most 
necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  young  of  nearly  all 
fowls,  yet  it  is  important  to  have  this  food  properly 
prepared  as  regards  water  content.  Scalded  bran 
and  corn  meal,  to  which  some  finely  chopped  hard- 
boiled  'eggs  have  been  added,  is  relished,  and  is  a 
satisfactory  food.  As  the  poults  become  older,  they 
may  be  fed  bran,  Indian  meal  and  ground  oats  (the 
hulls  removed)  which  have  been  thoroughly  soaked. 
Freshly  moistened  meal  foods  are  not  equal  to  the 
same  food  that  has  become  thoroughly  softened  by 
soaking  or  scalding.  Thick  sour  milk  or  curd  may 
be  mixed  with  the  soft  foods  to  good  advantage. 

When  the  birds  are  beginning  to  "feather  out," 
cracked  corn  may  be  added  to  the  ration.  Some 
successful  poultry -raisers,  however,  recommend 
soaking  the  cracked  corn  at  first.  Later  in  the  season 
whole  corn  may  be  fed.  Old  corn  is  preferred  to  new. 

GUINEA   FOWLS 

These  fowls  are  not  reared  in  large  numbers  on 
farms  devoted  to  that  particular  purpose,  as  are 
chickens  and  ducks,  but  comparatively  small  numbers 


Guinea  Fowls  295 

are  reared  on  many  farms.  The  rearing  of  guineas 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States  is  of  far 
greater  importance  than  it  is  in  the  North.  Where 
they  are  reared  in  the  largest  numbers  the  young 
fowls  are  highly  esteemed  for  food. 

Under    ordinary    farm    conditions    the    domes- 


Fio.  99.  A  guinea  hen  (one-sixth  size). 

ticated  guineas  can  hardly  be  called  profitable 
farm  fowls.  They  lay  fairly  well  during  the  sum- 
mer time  if  given  a  wide  range,  but,  owing  to  the 
disposition  of  the  hen  to  hide  her  nest,  the  eggs 
are  often  entirely  lost.  Many  instances  are  known 
in  which  the  hen  has  secreted  her  nest  and  continued 
to  lay  until  it  became  well  filled,  when  it  would  be 


296  Farm  Poultry 

abandoned  for  another.  This,  in  turn,  might  be  left 
to  the  same  fate  as  the  first.  Instances  are  known 
of  three  nests  being  well  filled  with  eggs  before  the 
hen  showed  any  disposition  to  incubate. 

Objections  have  been  made  to  the  fowl  on  account 
of  its  sharp,  screeching  voice.  It  is  true  that  guineas 
make  more  noise  than  chickens  and  that  their 
voices  are  somewhat  piercing,  yet  they  are  not  objec- 
tionable to  most  people  unless  the  poultry  yard  and 
other  places  frequented  by  them  are  very  near  the 
dwelling; -house.  The  writer  has  heard  several 
farmers  express  a  liking  for  these  birds  because 
they  are  "rather  noisy."  They  are  "company."  Like 
geese,  guineas  are  inclined  to  give  an  alarm  if  the 
poultry  yard  is  molested.  As  a  rule,  these  fowls 
mingle  well  in  the  poultry  yard  with  chickens, 
both  young  and  old. 

Guineas  like  a  wide  range.  They  prefer  to  perch 
far  from  the  ground — preferably  in  trees — although 
they  will  frequently  perch  with  hens  in  poultry 
houses  during  severe  weather,  if  given  an  opportu- 
nity to  do  so.  Guineas  are  naturally  shy  and  are 
easily  frightened,  although  they  may  become  tame 
with  kind  and  careful  treatment.  While  not  strictly 
so,  guineas  are  strongly  inclined  to  be  monogamous, 
and  consequently  it  is  necessary  to  keep  almost  as 
many  males  as  females,  if  fertile  eggs  are  desired. 
When  several  females  are  placed  with  one  male, 
poor  hatches  are  to  be  expected. 


Characteristics  of  Peafowls  297 

PEAFOWLS 

Peafowls  are  reared  in  small  numbers  by  those 
who  delight  in  seeing  the  most  gorgeous  plumage 
of  domesticated  fowls.  They  are  not  reared  for 
their  flesh  nor  for  egg  production.  It  is  recorded,* 
however,  that  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI  of  England, 
peacocks  were  highly  esteemed  as  a  delicacy.  In 
some  respects  peafowls  are  quite  as  near  the  wild 
forms  from  which  they  have  descended  as  any  species 
of  domesticated  fowls.  They  delight  in  perching  at 
a  great  distance  from  the  ground  and  frequently  fly 
to  the  roofs  of  tall  farm  buildings.  They  fly  easily 
and  gracefully. 

The  male  or  cock  bird  is  by  far  the  most  gor- 
geous of  farm  fowls.  Peafowls  are  reared  almost 
wholly  on  account  of  the  proud  and  brilliant  appear- 
ance of  the  male.  The  brilliant  coloring  of  the  head 
and  neck  feathers  and  his  large  and  beautiful  tail 
make  him  a  source  of  delight  to  children  and  an 
interesting  bird  to  adults.  The  hen  is  modest-appear- 
ing and  unattractive  in  coloring.  The  cock  is  gener- 
ally troublesome  in  the  poultry  yard  on  account  of 
his  disposition  to  kill  other  kinds  of  poultry,  particu- 
larly young  chickens  and  ducks.  Cocks  have  been 
known  to  attack  mature  fowls  and  even  children 
and  adults.  The  male  does  not  acquire  his  most 
brilliant  and  perfect  plumage  until  he  is  more  than 

*  "Book  of  Poultry,"  Wright,  p.  531. 


298  Farm  Poultry 

three  years  of  age.  The  peacock  is  disliked  by  some 
on  account  of  his  loud,  screeching  voice,  which  he  is 
inclined  to  use  freely. 


PIGEONS 

While  pigeons  are  not  usually  mentioned  among 
the  various  kinds  of  profitable  farm  stock,  yet 
the  possibilities  of  profitable  returns  are  so  great 
that  a  somewhat  full  discussion  of  pigeon-rearing 
is  warranted.  However,  only  a  short  discussion 
will  be  devoted  to  the  business  as  yielding  money 
returns  on  the  investment.  To  lovers  of  animal 
life,  pigeon-rearing  offers  a  most  fascinating  field, 
particularly  to  the  boys  and  girls  who  delight  in 
caring  for  stock  that  they  may  call  their  own.  Many 
a  farm  boy  has  become  interested  in  animal  life 
and  has  learned  many  things  which  have  been  of 
great  use  to  him  in  after  years,  that  he  acquired  by 
caring  for  and  studying  the  needs  of  pets  which  had 
been  given  wholly  to  his  charge.  Farm  boys  become 
dissatisfied  with  the  farm  and  decide  to  leave  it 
chiefly  for  two  reasons — because  they  are  not  inter- 
ested in  farm  life  and  work,  and  because  they  have 
not  been  taught  how  to  make  quick  returns  and  good 
profits  for  the  money  invested.  The  rearing  of  pigeons 
will  often  afford  satisfactory  first  lessons  and  may 
reveal  possibilities  that  will  be  sufficiently  enticing 
when  considered  from  a  standpoint  of  income  alone. 


Pigeon  Rearing  299 

Interest  in  animal  life,  particularly  those  forms  that 
are  easily  handled  and  controlled,  serves  a  most 
useful  purpose  in  leading  the  young  mind  along 
profitable  channels  of  development.  Interest  in 
pigeon-rearing  cannot  fail  to  develop,  to  some  extent, 
the  powers  of  observation.  Other  things  being  equal, 
the  boy  who  sees  most  will  have  the  best  understand- 


Fio.  100.   Pigeon  cote  and  aviary — Rhode  Island  Agricultural  College. 

ing  of  the  subject  in  question.  So  long  as  knowledge 
is  power,  then  those  who  are  the  closest  observers 
will  not  only  understand  best  the  matter  under  con- 
sideration, but  will  be  best  prepared  to  meet  the 
greater  problems  that  each  individual  is  required, 
sooner  or  later,  to  solve  for  himself. 

The  care  of  pigeons  may  be  given  almost  wholly 
to  quite  young  boys  and  girls,  if  a  few  simple  direc- 
tions for  feeding  and  care  be  understood,  and  a 
suitable  home  be  provided  for  the  birds.  On  most 


300  Farm  Poultry 

farms  only  a  small  money  outlay  will  be  required, 
and  very  little  trouble  is  necessary  to  prepare  com- 
fortable quarters  for  breeding  pigeons,  particularly 
if  the  young  be  sold  as  squabs. 

"The  shelters  for  squab-breeders  should  not 
be  too  cold,  although  the  experienced  can  raise 
them  in  almost  any  old  shell  of  a  building,  as  far 
north  as  New  York  city.  The  fittings  are  only  nests, 
perches  and  drinking-  and  bath-fountains,  a  space 
of  two  square  feet  of  floor  being  counted  to  each  bird, 
with  never  less  than  twice  as  much  room  in  the  flight 
yards,  in  the  open  air.  The  flight  spaces  are  best  en- 
closed by  inch-mesh  wire  net,  as  this  excludes 
sparrows,  which  are  arrant  thieves  and  fighters.  The 
netting  usually  runs  overhead,  to  the  highest  point 
of  the  roof."* 

A  fine  quality  of  squabs  finds  a  ready  market 
in  the  great  cities.  They  are  quoted  from  about 
50  cents  to  $4  per  dozen,  and  frequently  the  expert 
producers  obtain  nearly  twice  this  amount.  For 
the  money  outlay,  squab-raising  offers  a  tempting 
field  for  those  who  are  willing  to  give  attention  to 
the  many  little  things.  To  those  who  are  not  willing 
to  observe  closely  the  needs  of  the  birds  and  to  use 
good  judgment  in  meeting  these  demands,  pigeon- 
raising  will  probably  prove  unsatisfactory,  affording 
neither  pleasure  nor  profit.  The  negligent  or  care- 
less person  should  not  enter  into  the  poultry  busi- 

*  "Pocket  Money  Poultry,"  Norys,  p.  140. 


Squabs  301 

ness,  since  success  depends  on  the  many  minor 
things  which  cannot  be  neglected.  Squab-rearing 
may  be  made  very  profitable  if  "eternal  vigilance," 
the  price  of  success,  be  given. 

Most  of  the  squabs  that  are  now  sold  in  the 
markets  of  the  large  cities  average  from  one-half 
pound  to  three-quarters  of  a  pound  each,  while  the 
choicest  birds  may  weigh  nearly  twice  as  much.* 
Many  experienced  squab-raisers  prefer  a  cross  of 
Runts  and  Homers  for  fine  birds.  The  mother  should 
be  a  Homer,  as  these  birds  are  better  breeders  and 
better  mothers  than  the  Runts. 

The  health  of  pigeons  should  receive  close  atten- 
tion. They  should  be  given  an  opportunity  to 
bathe,  and  such  conditions  should  be  provided  as 
will  produce  the  strongest  and  most  vigorous  squabs. 
Light-colored  squabs  sell  best  on  the  market. 

A  variety  of  grains  is  usually  fed.  Cracked 
corn,  wheat,  hulled  oats,  millet,  hemp,  and  other 
small  seeds  are  much  used.  Cracked  corn  is  a 
favorite  food.  Pigeons  are  particularly  fond  of  salt. 
Many  pigeon  raisers  keep  a  supply  of  salt  acces- 
sible to  the  birds  at  all  times.  As  the  old  birds 
feed  the  squabs,  it  is  essential  that  the  parents  be 
well  fed.  A  clean  sanded  floor  is  an  excellent  place 
for  feeding  the  old  birds. 

*"Pocket  Money  Poultry,"  Norys,  p.  142. 


CHAPTER  XV 

PREPARING   AND   MARKETING   POULTRY  PRODUCTS 

THE  advance  in  price  of  poultry  products,  par- 
ticularly the  meat  products,  makes  their  condition 
when  they  reach  the  market  of  greater  relative  import- 
ance. With  low  prices  the  different  grades  do  not 
vary  greatly,  but  with  comparatively  high  prices 
the  variation  in  grades  due  to  quality  and  appear- 
ance is  very  marked. 

Those  who  are  preparing  poultry  for  market 
should  constantly  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  have  the  products  reach 
the  market  in  the  most  perfect  condition.  Flesh 
that  is  clean  and  bright  always  presents  a  more 
attractive  appearance  than  that  which  is  discol- 
ored. Fowls  are  sometimes  discolored  as  the  result 
of  improper  methods  of  packing  and  shipping. 
Careless  packing  and  rough  handling — the  latter 
too  often  given  by  the  employees  of  railroads  and 
express  companies — frequently  cause  a  good  article 
to  reach  the  market  in  a  poor  condition,  and  it 
therefore  brings  a  low  price.  It  is  the  privilege  of 
every  shipper  to  prepare  his  fowls  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  may  reach  the  market  in  as  inviting  con- 

(302) 


Attractive  Appearance  Important  303 

dition  as  possible.  The  best-appearing  fowls  always 
sell  at  a  higher  price  than  equally  as  good  stock 
that  has  been  improperly  prepared  or  is  untidy. 
Commission  men  state  that  properly  prepared  meat 
will  readily  sell  for  twice  as  much  as  an  equally 
good  article  that  is  poorly  arranged  and  uninviting. 

DRESSING   POULTRY 

Those  who  have  taken  the  trouble  to  study 
the  conditions  of  the  markets  in  the  great  cities 
say,  without  hesitation,  that  the  good  stock  is  sold 
first  and  that  the  poor  and  indifferent  often  becomes 
a  drug  on  the  market.  New  York  commission  men 
are  quite  positive  in  the  conviction  that  shippers  who 
send  considerable  produce  to  market  and  who  pre- 
pare their  product  in  uniformly  fine  order  readily 
acquire  a  reputation  among  buyers.  This  is  always 
an  advantage  and  is  a  material  aid  in  securing  better 
prices.  Thorough  and  careful  preparation  enable 
shippers  to  secure  a  somewhat  higher  price  than  the 
same  stock  would  bring  if  prepared  in  an  indifferent 
manner. 

In  order  to  arrange  products  for  market  in  the 
best  possible  manner,  it  is  necessary  to  study  the 
details  of  killing,  dressing  and  packing,  which 
will  enable  the  producer  to  send  not  only  those 
articles  which  the  market  demands,  but  to  send 
them  in  the  best  possible  condition.  Fowls  should 


304  Farm  Poultry 

• 

not  be  fed  for  some  time  before  killing.  At  least 
twelve  hours,  and  in  many  cases  twenty-four  hours, 
should  elapse  after  the  last  feeding  before  the  killing 
takes  place.  At  any  rate,  the  crops  of  the  chickens 
should  become  entirely  empty.  Some  cities  have 
passed  ordinances  prohibiting  the  selling  of  dressed 
fowls  whose  crops  are  not  free  from  food.  In  such 
markets  the  law  makes  it  imperative  that  solid 
food  should  be  withheld  long  enough  before  killing 
to  permit  the  crops  to  become  entirely  empty. 

If  for  any  reason  a  few  fowls  should  gain  access 
to  food  just  before  killing  time,  and  it  is  not  desir- 
able to  retain  them  longer  on  the  farm,  they  may 
be  killed  and  dressed  with  the  rest,  and  after  pick- 
ing, a  short,  clean-cut  incision  may  be  made  through 
the  skin,  which  will  permit  the  removal  of  the  crop. 
An  incision  should  be  made  in  the  crop,  the  crop 
turned  inside  out,  thoroughly  cleaned  and  returned. 
The  practice  of  removing  grain  from  the  crop  by 
forcing  it  out  through  the  mouth  by  external  pres- 
sure is  not  recommended;  in  fact,  it  is  condemned 
in  positive  terms  by  dealers.  While  in  some  in- 
stances it  may  be  possible  to  empty  the  crop  with- 
out breaking  the  skin,  yet  it  will  be  necessary  to 
use  sufficient  force  in  many  cases  to  cause  dis- 
coloration. 

There  are  two  methods  used  in  preparing  dressed 
fowls -for  market.  These  are  known  as  dry-picking 
and  scalding.  It  may  be  stated  in  a  general  way 


Killing  Fowls  305 

that  the  finest  quality  of  chickens  and  turkeys 
commands  higher  prices  when  dry-picked.  On  the 
other  hand,  lean  or  thin  poultry  does  not  present  so 
good  an  appearance  as  when  scalded  and  "plumped," 
as  will  be  explained  later,  and  therefore  does  not 
sell  so  well.  Ducks  and  geese  are  usually  scalded, 
with  the  exception  of  young,  fat  ducks,  which  are 
known  on  the  market  as  "green  ducks."  These 
are  usually  dry-picked. 

Killing. — Those  who  are  required  to  perform 
the  operation  of  killing  fowls  should  bear  in  mind 
that  it  is  desirable  to  remove  all  the  blood  from  the 
body  that  can  be  withdrawn,  and  to  cause  the  fowl 
to  suffer  as  little  pain  as  possible.  In  other  words, 
the  operator  should  be  as  humane  as  circumstances 
will  allow.  He  may,  at  the  same  time,  prepare  his 
birds  in  the  best  possible  manner. 

All  kinds  of  fowls  are  recommended  to  be  killed 
by  cutting  through  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  This 
will  cut  through  an  artery,  which  will  cause  the  blood 
to  flow  freely.  A  sharp-pointed  knife  should  be 
used  for  this  purpose,  which  should  pierce  the  base  of 
the  brain;  it  will  cause  death  at  once.  It  is  said 
by  experts  that  a  fowl  may  be  killed  so  quickly 
that  the  blood  will  not  flow  as  freely  as  desired 
and  that  the  feathers  will  be  removed  with  more 
difficulty,  especially  if  dry-picking  is  practiced. 
The  ideal  condition  is  to  have  the  knife  enter  the 
brain  and  paralyze  the  fowl,  and  while  in  this 


306  Farm  Poultry 

condition  to  have  it  bleed  to  death.  If  the  fowl 
becomes  paralyzed  the  muscles  are  relaxed  and 
the  feathers  are  easily  removed.  Too  much  stress 
cannot  be  laid  on  the  importance  of  thorough 
bleeding.  Americans  prefer  to  have  all  flesh  free 
from  blood.  The  keeping  quality  is  thought  to  be 
considerably  enhanced  by  thorough  bleeding.  In 
all  the  operations  of  killing  and  picking,  care  should 
be  taken  to  avoid  bruising  the  flesh,  tearing  the  skin 
or  breaking  the  bones. 

It  is  customary  to  suspend  fowls  by  the  feet 
before  they  are  killed.  In  the  case  of  heavy  fowls 
they  should  be  so  suspended  that  they  will  not 
strike  each  other  with  their  wings  when  flopping, 
or  strike  their  wings  against  any  hard  object.  Fowls 
bleed  best  when  suspended  head  downward  at  the 
time  of  killing. 

Dry-picking. — Immediately  after  killing,  the 
feathers  should  be  removed  carefully  and  cleanly. 
Dressed  fowls  should  be  sent  to  market,  if  pos- 
sible, without  the  skin  being  broken  at  any  place. 
It  is  usually  customary  to  commence  picking  im- 
mediately after  sticking.  " Green  ducks"  and  broilers 
are  usually  picked  while  the  bleeding  is  taking  place. 
As  soon  as  the  incision  is  made  with  the  knife,  the 
birds  are  stunned  by  a  blow  on  the  head  and  then 
picking  commences  at  once.  It  is  essential  in  dry- 
picking  to  remove  the  feathers  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  birds  are  killed. 


Dry-picking  and  Scalding  307 

When  fowls  are  picked  dry,  to  be  shipped  in 
cold  weather,  they  should  be  hung  in  a  cool  place 
until  thoroughly  cold  before  they  are  packed. 
Poultry  should  not  be  packed  until  all  of  the  ani- 
mal heat  has  disappeared.  A  cool  place  is  prefer- 
able to  one  so  cold  that  the  flesh  will  freeze  quickly. 
If  the  skin  is  wet  when  the  fowls  are  packed,  they 
are  likely  to  present  a  more  or  less  discolored  appear- 
ance when  offered  for  sale.  When  dry-picked  fowls 
are  to  be  packed  in  ice  for  hot-weather  shipment, 
they  may  be  plunged  into  cold  water  for  a  short 
time  immediately  after  picking  and  then  placed  in  a 
tank  of  ice  water  and  left  for  several  hours.  Some 
extensive  duck-raisers  make  a  practice  of  leaving 
the  picked  ducks  in  cold  water  over  night.  Either 
ice  water  or  cold  spring  water  may  be  used  for 
this  purpose. 

Young  fowls,  especially  ducks,  that  have  many 
pin  feathers  are  sometimes  prepared  by  shaving 
with  a  sharp  knife  after  the  feathers  are  removed. 
This  removes  the  projecting  parts  of  the  pin  feathers 
and  will  help  to  place  the  fowl  in  the  best  possible 
condition  for  market.  Of  course  white  birds  are 
much  preferred  on  this  account  to  colored  ones. 
The  English  use  a  short,  thin-bladed  knife  in  re- 
moving the  pin  feathers.  This  operation  is  called 
"stubbing,"  and  is  generally  performed  by  women 
and  children. 
,  Scalding. — When  birds  are  scalded  they  should 


308  Farm  Poultry 

be  immersed  in  hot  water  immediately  after  they 
are  through  bleeding.  The  water  should  be  a  little 
below  the  boiling-point.  It  is  recommended  to 
immerse  the  birds  thoroughly  in  the  water  three 
or  four  times,  lifting  them  out  between  each  immer- 
sion in  order  to  give  them  a  little  airing.  Immed- 
iately after  scalding,  chickens  and  turkeys  should 
be  picked  clean,  and  care  be  taken  not  to  break  the 
skin.  The  skin  of  young  fat  fowls  is  more  likely 
to  tear  than  that  of  older  ones.  As  these  birds  are 
the  mdst  valuable,  it  is  necessary  to  exercise  the 
greatest  care  and  skill  in  preparing  them.  After 
scalding  ducks  and  geese,  it  is  recommended  to 
wrap  them  in  a  cloth  for  about  two  minutes,  in 
order  that  the  down  may  be  more  readily  removed 
with  the  feathers. 

Plumping. — Commission  men  recommend  that 
scalded  poultry  be  "plumped"  after  picking.  That 
is,  after  the  fowls  are  carefully  picked,  they  should 
be  dipped  in  hot  water  for  a  few  seconds.  This 
water  should  be  about  the  same  temperature  as 
that  used  for  scalding,  perhaps  not  quite  so  warm. 
Then  they  are  removed  and  placed  at  once  in  cold 
water,  where  they  should  remain  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes.  If  fowls  that  are  scalded  and 
"plumped"  in  this  manner  are  to  be  shipped  dry, 
they  should  be  hung  up  until  the  skin  becomes 
thoroughly  dry.  If  they  are  to  be  packed  in  ice  for 
warm-weather  shipment  they  may  be  placed  in 


Plumping  and  Packing  309 

cold  water  for  several  hours,  when  they  will  be  ready 
to  pack.  It  is  not  necessary  to  dry  the  fowls  when 
they  are  to  be  packed  in  ice. 

In  scalding  fowls,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
leave  them  in  the  water  too  long.  Over-scald- 
ing will  cause  the  outer  surface  of  the  skin  to  peel 
off,  and  consequently,  they  will  not  present  a  good 
appearance.  If  they  are  under-scalded,  the  feathers 
cannot  be  removed  so  readily,  and  salesmen  find 
that  they  do  not  appear  so  well  when  exposed  for  sale. 

PACKING   AND    SHIPPING 

If  the  fowls  are  to  be  packed  dry  for  cool-weather 
shipment,  neat  packages  that  are  clean,  and  as 
light  as  will  carry  the  contents  safely,  are  to  be 
preferred.  Uniform  packages  are  preferred  to 
various  kinds  of  rough  boxes.  Clean  barrels  or 
neatly  prepared  cases  should  be  used.  It  is  recom- 
mended to  use  cases  or  boxes  for  turkeys  and  geese, 
and  barrels  for  chickens.  In  packing  poultry,  it  is 
customary  to  use  clean,  dry  wheat  or  rye  straw. 
The  straw  should  be  free  from  chaff,  and  hand- 
threshed  is  preferred  to  that  which  has  been  threshed 
by  a  machine.  A  layer  of  straw  should  be  placed 
in  the  bottom  of  the  package,  and  then  alternate 
layers  of  poultry  and  straw  until  the  package  is  full. 
Heavy  paper  is  placed  by  some  .poultry  shippers 
between  the  poultry  and  the  sides  of  the  package. 


310  Farm  Poultry 

All  fowls  should  be  perfectly  clean  and  dry  before 
packing.  If  there  is  any  moisture  or  blood  about 
the  head  it  should  be  removed  with  a  cloth.  If  a 
fowl  is  inclined  to  bleed  a  little  at  the  mouth,  the 
mouth  should  be  thoroughly  wiped  out  and  a  little 
cotton  inserted  to  absorb  any  liquid  that  might 
otherwise  cause  discoloration. 

Packing  in  ice. — Large  barrels  are  usually  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose.  If  sugar  barrels  are  used, 
they  should  be  thoroughly  washed,  preferably 
with  h6t  water,  to  remove  all  traces  of  sugar.  Expert 
packers  place  a  layer  of  cracked  ice  in  the  bottom 
of  the  barrel,  then  a  layer  of  poultry,  then  another 
layer  of  ice,  and  so  on  until  the  barrel  is  full.  After 
the  top  layer  of  poultry  is  in  place,  there  should  be 
a  layer  of  cracked  ice  placed  on  top.  On  this  layer 
spread  a  piece  of  burlap  which  is  sufficiently  large 
to  cover  well  the  top  of  the  barrel.  On  this  burlap 
some  cracked  ice  may  be  placed  and  on  top  of  all 
a  large  piece  of  ice.  Over  all  place  another  piece 
of  burlap.  This  may  be  held  in  place  by  driving 
the  top  hoop  on  over  the  burlap. 

It  is  recommended  to  place  the  fowls  heads 
outward,  backs  up  and  the  feet  toward  the  middle 
of  the  barrel.  That  is,  the  fowls  as  placed  in  the 
barrel  should  slope  from  the  center  toward  the 
staves.  This  will  cause  the  ice  as  it  melts  to  work 
from  the  center  toward  the  outside  of  the  barrel. 
In  transit  the  ice  nearest  to  the  outside  of  the  barrel 


Packing  for  Shipment  311 

will  melt  first.  It  is,  therefore,  of  considerable 
importance  to  have  those  parts  of  the  fowls  nearest 
to  the  outside  of  the  barrel  cooled  by  the  ice  which 
is  in  the  center  of  the  barrel.  The  water  and  ice 
from  the  center  will  continually  work  toward  the 
outside. 

Frozen  poultry. — Poultry  is  frequently  shipped 
during  cold  weather  in  a  frozen  condition.  Com- 
mission men  recommend  that  only  the  best  quality 
of  poultry  should  be  shipped  in  this  manner.  Only 
dry-picked  fowls  should  be  selected  for  freezing. 
When  poultry  is  frozen  by  natural  out-of-door 
temperature,  cases  may  be  filled  when  the  fowls  are 
thoroughly  frozen  and  the  temperature  is  low.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  use  ice  in  packing  when  frozen 
fowls  are  shipped.  Poultry  that  is  frozen  solid  may 
be  kept  for  a  long  time,  even  for  months,  provided 
it  does  not  thaw  out. 

Marking  packages. — If  dressed  poultry  is  sent 
to  middlemen,  each  package  should  be  marked  with 
the  name  and  address  of  the  commission  man  and 
also  with  the  name  and  address  of  the  sender.  It 
is  also  well  to  mark  on  each  package  its  contents, 
whether  chickens,  fowls,  turkeys,  ducks  or  geese, 
and  the  number  of  birds  or  gross  weight.  It  should 
not  be  neglected  to  forward  advice  by  mail,  giving 
a  correct  statement  of  all  goods  sent.  If  inferior 
or  second-quality  fowls  are  shipped,  it  is  always  best 
to  state  to  the  commission  man  the  contents  of 


312  Farm  Poultry 

the  package  and  also  the  quality.  If  a  poor  quality 
of  goods  is  sent,  he  is  sure  to  find  it  out,  and  it  may 
save  him  considerable  annoyance  if  he  knows  what 
the  package  contains  before  it  is  opened. 

There  seems  to  be  a  disposition  on  the  part  of 
some  shippers,  who  are  not  very  familiar  with  the 
business,  to  refrain  from  marking  packages  as  to 
quality.  Nothing  can  be  made  by  this  practice  as 
the  quality  will  be  known  before  a  sale  is  made. 
A  good  rule  is  to  help  the  dealer,  then  you  may 
expect  favors  from  him. 

Time  of  shipment. — When  poultry  or  eggs  are 
sent  to  commission  men,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  these  products,  if  for  immediate  sale,  should 
reach  them  in  the  middle  or  early  part  of  the  week. 
Many  commission  men  sell  very  little  after  Friday 
noon.  In  a  general  way,  it  may  be  stated  that  Sat- 
urday is  retailers'  day;  that  the  retailers  are  sup- 
posed to  have  their  stock  on  hand  before  Saturday, 
and  that  they  do  not  go  to  the  commission  men  for 
their  supplies  during  that  day.  Shipments  are  often 
made  so  that  they  reach  their  destination  late  in  the 
week  and  are,  therefore,  carried  over  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  next  week. 

English  and  German  methods. — The  English 
method  of  preparing  fowls  for  market  is,  in  many 
respects,  very  different  from  that  in  vogue  in  the 
United  States,  and  undoubtedly  would  not  be 
acceptable  to  the  most  fastidious  in  this  country, 


English  Methods  313 

who  have  become  accustomed  to  other  methods  of 
dressing  and  marketing  fowls.  The  English  method 
of  preparing  young  fowls  for  market,  which  have  been 
fattened  by  the  cramming  process  and  which  affords 
a  most  delicate  flesh,  is  to  kill  them  without  bleeding. 
While  in  the  United  States  great  stress  is  laid  on 
removing  as  much  blood  as  possible  from  the  body, 
the  English  prefer  not  to  have  the  fowl  bled  at  all. 
The  operator  holds  the  fowl  with  his  left  hand  and 
grasps  the  head  with  his  right.  He  gives  a  forcible, 
forward  pull  with  his  right  hand,  holding  the  head 
at  right  angles  to  the  neck.  He  uses  enough  force 
to  dislocate  the  neck  just  below  the  head.  This 
kills  the  fowl  at  once  and  frequently  causes  consid- 
erable blood  to  settle  in  the  neck,  although  no  blood 
leaves  the  body.  When  dry-picking  is  practiced  the 
fowls  are  picked  at  once  after  the  neck  is  dislocated. 
Pickers  become  very  expert  in  dry-picking  fowls.  As 
the  hand  moves  back  and  forth  over  the  body  the 
feathers  gradually  disappear,  and  in  less  time  than 
it  requires  to  describe  the  operation  properly  an 
expert  picker  will  have  the  feathers  removed  from  a 
good  specimen.  While  the  English  do  not  meet 
our  requirements  as  regards  the  drawing  of  blood, 
yet  in  some  respects  they  take  more  pains  in  pre- 
paring the  bids  for  market  than  Americans  do. 
As  soon  as  the  birds  are  picked,  they  are  fre- 
quently placed  on  what  is  known  as  a  "forming 
machine/7  prepared  for  the  purpose  and  weighted, 


314  Farm  Poultry 

in  order  to  make  the  bodies  appear  plump.  The 
legs  are  folded  underneath  the  body,  which  gives 
a  plumper  appearance.  Before  the  fowls  are  placed 
on  the  machine  the  breast  bone  is  sometimes  broken 
down,  though  not  always.  The  stern  of  the  fowl 
is  pressed  firmly  against  a  smooth,  hard  object  in 
order  to  give  it  a  flattened  appearance.  This  appear- 
ance is  still  further  increased  by  the  use  of  the  ma- 
chine on  which  the  fowls  are  placed.  They  are  left 
on  the  shelves  until  cool.  Sometimes,  however, 
they  ard  sent  to  a  near-by  market  before  the  animal 
heat  has  left  the  body.  The  English  method  of 
preparing  fowls  for  market  has  some  advantages 
over  that  in  use  in  the  United  States.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  fowls  will  appear  plumper  when  cooled 
on  a  "forming  machine,"  after  the  English  fashion, 
than  when  hung  up  by  the  feet  to  cool  according 
to  the  almost  universal  custom  in  America. 

The  "forming  machine,"*  see  Fig.  101,  is  made 
by  arranging  conveniently  a  series  of  shelves  so  that 
each  shelf  has  a  backboard  placed  at  nearly  a  right 
angle  to  it.  The  shelves  slope  backward  somewhat, 
which  keeps  the  fowls  which  are  placed  upon  them 
snugly  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  shelf  and  the 
backboard.  The  width  of  the  shelf  is  determined 
somewhat  by  the  size  of  the  fowls  to  be  placed  upon 
it.  Those  who  are  extensively  engaged  in  fattening 
fowls  have  different  sizes  of  "forming  machines." 

*  "Fattening  Fowls,"  E.  Cobb. 


The  Forming  Machine  315 

For  medium-sized  chickens,  shelves  about  seven 
inches  wide  are  used.  The  English  become  very 
skilful  in  using  the  machine  to  the  best  advantage. 


Fio.  101.   An  English  "forming  machine,"  which  is  used  to  give  a  plump 
appearance  to  dressed  chickens. 

The  operation  of  preparing  the  fowls  by  the  use  of 
this  machine  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows: 
They  first  squeeze  out  any  matter  from  the  vent, 
then  grasp  the  bird,  back  uppermost,  with  both 
hands.  The  thumbs  are  placed  on  the  back  with  the 
fingers  clasping  the  legs,  'which  are  bent  under- 
neath the  body.  While  held  in  this  position  the 
bird  is  pressed  forcibly  against  a  smooth  wall  or 
post,  which  forces  the  "parson's  nose"  upward  so 
that  its  point  is  above  the  back.  During  this  oper- 
ation the  body  is  held  firmly,  but  care  is  taken  not 


316  Farm  Poultry 

to  mar  the  skin.    The  bird  is  placed  carefully  in 
the  machine  so  that  the  "parson's  nose"  is  held 


FIG.  102.  A  capon  as  prepared  for 
the  English  market  by  use  of  a 
"forming  machine."  From  "Fat- 
tening  Fowls,"  by  Cobb.  Note  de- 
pression on  back  made  by  weighted 
board. 

straight  up  against  the  backboard,  the  head  and 
neck  hanging  over  the  front  of  the  shelf.  When 
the  shelf  is  filled  with  birds  that  are  tightly  packed 
side  by  side,  a  board  three  or  four  inches  wide  is 
placed  on  the  fowls  and  heavily  weighted.  They 
are  left  in  this  position  until  cold.  (See  Fig.  102.) 
The  English  frequently  break  down  the  breast 
bone  of  young  fowls  that  are  not  very  fat,  in  order 
to  give  them  a  plumper  appearance.  This  may 
be  done  by  grasping  the  fowl  with  both  hands  and 
pressing  with  the  thumbs  on  the  breast  until  the 


Shipping  Live  Poultry  317 

bone,  or  the  structure  which  supports  it,  breaks  and 
leaves  the  fowl  with  a  less  prominent  breast.  The 
Germans  frequently  break  down  the  breast  bone  of 
chickens  and  ducks  by  striking  a  smart  blow  on 
the  most  prominent  part  of  the  bone  with  a  smooth, 
well-rounded  paddle. 

SHIPPING   LIVE    POULTRY 

When  live  poultry  is  shipped  long  distances 
to  market,  it  should  be  placed  in  coops  which  are 
high  enough  to  permit  the  fowls  to  stand  erect. 
It  is  also  an  advantage,  and  will  give  comfort 
to  the  occupants  of  the  coop,  if  the  top  is  made 
of  slats  which  are  far  enough  apart  so  that  they  may 
straighten  up  and  pass  their  heads  between  the  slats. 

Shipping  crates  or  coops  should  be  as  light  as 
is  consistent  with  the  requisite  strength.  Large 
and  heavy  crates  are  awkward  to  handle  and  are 
expensive  to  transport.  Large  coops  on  many  accounts 
are  not  so  desirable  as  small  ones,  particularly  if 
they  are  well  filled  with  heavy  fowls.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  these  shipping  crates  or  coops 
are  required  to  be  handled  quickly,  and  if  they  are 
heavy,  rougher  usage  is  given  them  than  would  be 
given  to  smaller  ones.  These  coops  are  usually 
sent  by  express,  and  the  employees  of  the  express 
companies  find  it  necessary  to  work  rapidly  and 
often  are  prevented  from  handling  the  coops  carefully. 


318  Farm  Poultry 

If  large  coops  are  used,  they  should  have  one 
or  more  partitions  across  them  so  that  the  fowls  will 
not  all  be  thrown  to  one  side,  if  for  any  reason  the 
coop  becomes  tilted.  When  tilted,  large  coops  with- 
out partitions  cause  great  discomfort  to  the  occu- 
pants on  the  lower  side  of  the  coop,  and  in  many 
cases  if  the  coop  remains  tipped  for  any  consider- 
able time,  death  may  result  from  suffocation. 

It  is  important  that  the  fowls  of  a  crate  or  coop 
should  be  uniform;  that  is,  the  sexes  should  not  be 
shipped' in  the  same  division  of  a  crate  and  young 
fowls  should  not  be  sent  with  old  ones.  It  fre- 
quently happens  that  a  commission  man  or  dealer 
can  find  ready  sale  for  a  uniform  lot  of  fowls  but  is 
unable  to  dispose  of  a  mixed  lot.  It  is  often  incon- 
venient, if  not  impossible,  for  him  to  sort  and  grade 
them,  consequently  the  fowls  are  sold  at  a  sacrifice. 
Middlemen  and  dealers  of  the  great  cities  are  busy 
and  are  accustomed  to  do  a  great  deal  of  business 
in  a  short  time.  They  do  not  have  the  time  and 
conveniences  for  the  grading  that  should  be  done 
before  the  fowls  are  placed  in  the  shipping-crates. 
They  want  things  ready. 

EGGS — CARE    AND    HANDLING 

It  is  important  that  eggs  receive  proper  care 
immediately  after  they  are  laid  if  they  are  to  be 
marketed  in  a  strictlv  first-class  condition. 


Preparing   Eggs  for   Market  319 

The  loss  to  the  country  through  the  marketing 
of  deteriorated  eggs  is  great,  and  any  movement 
that  will  tend  to  lessen  the  evil  cannot  help  to  be 
of  value  to  the  farmer  and 
poultryman.  *"It  has  been 
estimated  that  about  five 
per  cent  of  all  the  eggs  mar- 
keted in  this  country  are 
culled  out  as  " dirties"  caus- 
ing a  loss  of  about  one  per  l 
cent  on  the  total  value  of  FIG.  103. 

. ,  ,,    .  ,  A  convenient  egg-carrier. 

the  egg  crop  of  the  country. 

For  this  the  farmer  and  poultryman  are  alone  to 

blame." 

Eggs  that  are  not  perfectly  clean  should  not 
be  sent  to  market.  Indifferent  or  careless  poultry- 
men  permit  the  nests  to  become  fouled,  and  many 
eggs  are  not  clean  when  gathered.  Eggs  may  be 
stained  from  nest  material,  and  they  are  some- 
times colored  with  blood,  particularly  the  first 
eggs  of  pullets.  Stains  of  various  kinds  may  be 
readily  removed  with  a  moistened  cloth  on  which 
has  been  dusted  a  little  cooking  soda.  Poultrymen 
who  make  a  specialty  of  fancy  eggs  are  particular 
to  send  clean  eggs  to  market,  and  also  take  consider- 
able pains  to  ship  only  those  of  uniform  size  and 
color.  Uniformity  is  of  great  importance  when  the 
highest  prices  are  to  be  secured.  As  a  fruit-grower 

*  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry, Circular  No.  140. 


320  Farm  Poultry 

recognizes  that  a  few  large  apples  when  mixed  with 
those  of  medium  size  do  positive  injury,  so  far  as 
the  market  value  is  concerned,  so  expert  egg  pro- 
ducers recognize  that  a  few  large  eggs  mixed  with 
those  of  average  size  detract  from  the  appearance, 
and,  consequently,  from  the  market  value.  The 
purchaser  is  attracted  by  uniformity.  If  he  sees  that 
all  the  eggs  on  top  of  the  crate  are  of  uniform  size, 
color,  and  shape,  he  naturally  expects  uniformity 
throughout.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  finds  that 
they  are  of  all  -sizes,  he  cannot  expect  uniformity 
in  the  lower  layers.  If  one's  flock  consists  of  pure- 
bred stock,  the  eggs  should  be  fairly  uniform  in 
shape  and  color,  and  also  in  size,  although  large 
eggs  and  abnormally  small  ones  will  occasionally 
appear;  these  may  be  kept  for  home  consumption 
or  for  the  local  market. 

Much  has  been  said  about  marketing  eggs  in 
a  strictly  fresh  condition.  Those  who  have  had 
years  of  experience,  and  have  established  a  repu- 
tation that  has  become  almost  national,  are  con- 
vinced that  the  market  will  not  distinguish  between 
an  egg  one  day  old  and  one  four  days  old.  An 
egg  four  or  five  days  old  is  in  a  perfectly  fresh  condi- 
tion, if  it  has  had  good  treatment.  If  it  has  been 
subjected  to  the  heat  of  an  incubator  for  that  length 
of  time,  it  would  not  be  fresh.  Eggs  may  be  sent  to 
market  hundreds  of  miles  by  express  and  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  consumer  when  not  more  than 


Deteriorated   Eggs  321 

a  few  days  old.  Whenever  a  poultryman  who 
aims  to  produce  the  finest  quality  of  eggs  desires  to 
establish  a  reputation  for  himself,  it  will  probably 
be  necessary  for  him,  at  first,  to  send  his  eggs  under 
a  guaranty  that  they  were  produced  by  his  own 
flock,  and  that  he  knows  them  to  be  strictly  first- 
class  in  every  respect. 

Many  deteriorated  eggs  are  shipped  to  market 
and  are  there  sorted  out;  some  are  known  as  "heated 
eggs."  These  are  fertile  eggs  that  have  been  sub- 
jected to  a  sufficiently  high  temperature  to  per- 
ceptibly start  the  development  of  the  germ  which 
if  continued  long  enough  would  produce  the  fully 
developed  chick.  This  may  have  been  done  in  the 
nest,  perhaps  under  a  broody  hen,  or  by  keeping  the 
eggs  in  too  warm  a  place  in  the  barn  or  house,  or 
during  the  time  occupied  in  traveling  from  the  farm 
to  the  market  where  the  poor  eggs  are  culled  out. 
The  loss  from  this  cause  alone  is  thought  to  be  several 
times  that  caused  by  eggs  becoming  spoiled. 

SPOILED   EGGS 

Evaporated  or  "shrunken"  eggs  are  those  that 
have  been  allowed  to  dry  out  through  the  natural 
process  of  evaporation.  They  are  readily  detected 
by  the  increased  size  of  the  air-chamber  which 
shows  that  the  egg  is  not  fresh.  Eggs  kept  for  some 
time  in  a  dry,  well-ventilated  room  lose  so  much 


322  Farm  Poultry 

moisture  that  they  cannot  be  sold  as  fresh  and  are 
culled  out  as  " shrunken." 

There  is  another  large  class  of  deteriorated  eggs 
known  as  "rots."  These  eggs  have  become  totally 
unfit  for  food  through  bacterial  contamination. 
The  loss  to  dealers  from  this  source  is  great,  which 
eventually  must  be  borne  either  directly  or  indi- 
rectly by  the  producer. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  there  has  not  been 
developed  in  this  country  a  more  rapid  and  satis- 
factory method  of  gathering  eggs  from  the  farm 
and  transporting  them  to  the  consumer,  in  order 
that  this  great  loss  might  be  lessened  as  far  as  pos- 
sible and  the  consumer  be  given  a  greater  guarantee 
as  to  quality. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  in  dairy  districts 
where  daily  trips  are  made  from  the  farm  to  the 
creamery  or  skimming  station,  that  fresh  eggs  be 
delivered  with  the  milk.  This  would  enable  the 
creamery  to  make  frequent  shipments  and  thus 
prove  an  efficient  agency  in  the  handling  of  this 
important  food  product. 

Shipping-cases. — Eggs  are  usually  sent  to  mar- 
ket in  shipping-crates  which  are  constructed  speci- 
ally for  this  purpose.  The  standard-size  crate 
holds  thirty  dozens.  (See  Fig.  104.)  These  crates, 
or  shipping-cases,  contain  trays  which  fit  into  the 
outer  case,  one  above  the  other.  The  trays  are 
divided  by  pasteboard  partitions  into  many  sepa- 


Shipping   Cases  for  Eggs 


323 


Fia.  104.  A  thirty-dozen-egg  shipping  case. 


rate  compartments,  each  compartment  holding  one 
egg.  Some  shipping-cases  have  wire  springs  instead 
of  the  pasteboard  partitions  to  hold  the  eggs.  The 
English  prefer  what 
is  known  as  the  Irish 
shipping-case.  This 
consists  of  a  case  not 
unlike  a  small  dry- 
goods  box.  In  this 
is  placed  a  layer  of 
sea  grass  similar  to 
that  used  in  packing 
china  and  glassware.  The  grass  is  placed  in  the 
form  of  a  shallow  hen's  nest.  This  is  filled  with 
eggs.  On  these  is  placed  another  layer  of  sea  grass 
and  another  layer  of  eggs,  the  layers  of  eggs  and 
sea  grass  alternating  until  the  case  is  nearly  full. 
More  sea  grass  is  then  put  on  and  the  cover 
fastened  by  nails  or  screws.  While  this  case  is 
preferred  by  the  English,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it 
would  be  sufficient  to  withstand  the  rough  usage 
given  by  the  American  express  companies  and  freight 
lines. 

Many  commission  men  prefer  to  have  eggs 
shipped  to  them  in  barrels,  packed  in  dry,  fine- 
cut,  clean  wheat  or  rye  straw.  Barrels  are  strong, 
rigid  packages  for  their  weight,  and  are  well  adapted 
for  shipping.  A  barrel  will  hold  about  seventy 
dozen,  if  properly  packed. 


324  Farm  Poultry 

PRESERVING   EGGS 

During  the  spring  and  early  summer  months, 
when  a  large  proportion  of  the  hens  that  are  kept 
on  farms  are  laying,  the  price  of  eggs  is  frequently 
very  low,  particularly  in  local  markets  where  most 
of  the  farm  eggs  are  sold.  In  such  times  many 
eggs  are  preserved  until  late  fall,  when  the  price 
is  usually  the  highest.  Many  persons  make  a  busi- 
ness of  preserving  eggs  in  order  to  reap  the  benefit 
of  the  advance  in  price;  others  preserve  them  in 
times  of  plenty  for  home  consumption  when  the 
hens  are  not  laying.  Many  others  would  attempt 
to  keep  them  if  they  but  knew  of  a  simple  and 
safe  way  of  preserving  them.  To  such  persons  it 
may  be  said  that  there  is  no  well-known  way  of 
keeping  eggs  absolutely  fresh  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time.  There  are  several  methods,  however, 
that  are  sufficiently  satisfactory  to  warrant  the 
preservation  of  eggs  both  for  the  market  and  for 
home  use.  Preserved  eggs  are  thought  to  be  injured 
by  cold  sooner  than  fresh  ones.  The  following  gives 
the  results  of  experiments  made  in  Germany  with 
various  preservatives  :* 

"The  Berliner  Markthallenzeitung  reports  about 
experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the 
most  rational  method  of  preserving  eggs.  .  .  . 
Twenty  methods  were  selected  for  these  experi- 

*United  States  Consular  Reports,  Dec.,  1897,  pp.  563,  564.— Thieriot. 


Egg  Preservatives  325 

ments.  In  the  first  days  of  July,  four  hundred 
fresh  eggs  were  prepared  according  to  these  methods 
(twenty  eggs  for  each  method),  to  be  opened  for 
use  at  the  end  of  the  month  of  February.  .  .  . 
After  eight  months  of  preservation  the  eggs  were 
opened  for  use,  and  the  twenty  different  methods 
employed  gave  the  most  heterogeneous  results  .  .  . 

1.  Eggs  put  for  preservation  in  salt  water  were  all  bad. 

2.  Eggs  wrapped  in  paper,  80  per  cent  bad. 

3.  Eggs  preserved  in  a  solution  of  salicylic  acid  and  glycerin, 

80  per  cent  bad. 

4.  Eggs  rubbed  with  salt,  70  per  cent  bad. 

5.  Eggs  preserved  in  bran,  70  per  cent  bad. 

6.  Eggs  provided  with  a  cover  of  paraffin,  70  per  cent  bad. 

7.  Eggs  varnished  with  a  solution  of  glycerin  and  salicylic 

acid,  70  per  cent  bad. 

8.  Eggs  put  in  boiling  water  for  twelve  to  fifteen    seconds, 

50  per  cent  bad. 

9.  Eggs    treated  with    a  solution  of  alum,  50  per  cent  bad. 

10.  Eggs  put  in  a  solution  of  salicylic  acid,  50  per  cent  bad. 

11.  Eggs  varnished  with  water-glass  (wasserglas)  40  per  cent 

bad. 

12.  Eggs  varnished  with  collodion,  40  per  cent  bad. 

13.  Eggs  covered  with  lac,  40  per  cent  bad. 

14.  Eggs  varnished  with  sward,  20  per  cent  bad. 

15.  Eggs  preserved  in  ashes  of  wood,  20  per  cent  bad. 

16.  Eggs  treated  with  boric  acid  and  water-glass,  20  per  cent 

bad. 

17.  Eggs  treated  with  manganate  of  potassa,  20  per  cent  bad. 

18.  Eggs  varnished  with  vaseline,  all  good. 

19.  Eggs  preserved  in  lime-water,  all  good. 

20.  Eggs  preserved  in  a  solution  of  water-glass,   all  good. 

"The  last  three  methods  are  consequently  to  be 


326  Farm  Poultry 

considered  the  best  ones,  especially  the  preserva- 
tion in  a  solution  of  water-glass,  as  varnishing  the 
eggs  with  vaseline  takes  too  much  time,  and  the 
treatment  with  lime-water  sometimes  communi- 
cates to  the  eggs  a  disagreeable  odor  and  taste." 

Water-glass* — "We  tried  the  keeping  of  eggs 
with  sodium  silicate  (water-glass)  with  good  results. 
Sodium  silicate  is  a  compound  containing  silicon, 
sodium  and  oxygen  in  the  proportion  of  one,  two 
and  three  respectively.  It  can  be  purchased  from 
druggist's  in  the  form  of  a  semi-fluid  resembling 
thick  sugar  syrup,  for  which  it  might  easily  be 
mistaken.  . 

"An  experiment  was  conducted  in  our  depart- 
ment for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  most 
effective  degree  of  concentration.  The  result  of 
the  experiment  is  of  considerable  importance,  inas- 
much as  the  cost  of  the  mixture  may  be  greatly 
reduced  without  destroying  its  value. 

"On  the  27th  of  May,  we  took  twelve  dozen 
eggs,  all  known  to  be  perfectly  fresh,  and  prepared 
the  following  solutions: 

No.  1.  One  part  of  water-glass  in  the  semi-fluid  form  to  ten 

parts  water. 
No.  2.  One  part  water-glass  in  the  semi-liquid  form  to  fifteen/ 

parts  water. 
No.  3.  One  part  water-glass  in  the  semi-liquid  form  to  twenty 

parts  water. 

*  24th  Annual  Report  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  pp.   193,   194. 


Water-glass  as  a  Preservative  327 

"The  first  solution  was  found  to  be  too  strong, 
as  it  caused  the  eggs  to  float.  The  second  was 
all  right  in  this  respect.  The  third,  though  much 
weaker,  gave  perfect  satisfaction.  We  divided 
the  eggs  into  three  lots  of  four  dozen  each,  and 
put  one  lot  into  each  solution.  We  tested  them 
from  time  to  time,  and  in  every  case  found  them 
perfectly  fresh;  and,  on  breaking,  we  noticed  that 
the  yolk  stood  up  exactly  as  in  new-laid  eggs,  and 
did  not  show  the  slightest  tendency  towards  decay. 

"We  tested  one-half  dozen  from  each  solution 
on  the  first  of  December,  and  could  not  detect 
any  difference  in  the  appearance  or  quality  in  the 
eggs  out  of  the  different  solutions,  all  being  per- 
fectly fresh  after  being  in  the  solution  six  months.  .  . 

"In  order  to  use  water-glass  successfully,  the 
following  plan  should  be  adopted:  Take  one  part 
by  measure  of  water-glass,  say  one  gallon,  and 
twenty  parts  by  measure  of  water  that  has  been 
boiled  (twenty  gallons),  and  allow  the  water  to 
cool;  then  place  the  water-glass  and  water  in  a 
vessel;  stir  the  ingredients  well  together;  put  the 
eggs  into  the  tub  or  vat  in  which  they  are  to  be 
kept,  and  pour  the  solution  over  them  until  the 
topmost  layer  is  completely  covered.  The  reason 
for  boiling  the  water  is  to  kill  any  putrefactive 
germs  which  may  be  in  the  water  at  the  time.  If 
water-glass  is  purchased  by  the  cwt.,  it  should  be 
procured  for  $2.50  to  S3  per  cwt.  (112  Ibs.). 


328  Farm  Poultry  . 

"So  far  as  we  know  this  is  the  best  solution  yet 
tried  for  the  preservation  of  eggs.  When  taken 
out  of  it  the  eggs  have  the  appearance  of  fresh- 
laid  eggs,  and  when  they  are  broken  the  yolk  stands 
up  exactly  as  in  new-laid  eggs,  without  showing 
the  slighest  tendency  toward  decay.  It  is  first 
necessary,  before  boiling  eggs  that  have  been  kept 
in  this  solution,  as  in  lime  pickle,  to  puncture  the 
shell  with  a  needle,  otherwise  the  shell  will  crack 
as  soon  as  placed  in  hot  water,  owing  to  the  pores  of 
the  shell  being  closed." 

The  reports  of  tests,  made  with  water-glass  as 
an  egg  preservative,  from  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try would  indicate  considerable  variation  as  to  the 
strength  or  thickness  of  commercial  water-glass.  The 
Storrs  (Conn.)  Experiment  Station  recommends  that 
the  mixture  be  made  in  the  proportion  of  nine  quarts 
of  boiled  water  to  one  quart  of  water-glass.  At 
any  rate  the  specific  gravity  of  the  preserving  liquid 
must  be  low  enough  to  allow  the  eggs  to  sink  readily. 

The  following  precautions  should  be  quite  strictly 
observed : 

Use  strictly  fresh  eggs 

Keep  the  eggs,  immersed  in  the  preservative,  in 
a  dry,  cool  place  where  the  variation  in  temperature 
is  comparatively  slight. 

Do  not  attempt  to  preserve  cracked  eggs. 

Keep  all  of  the  eggs  submerged  in  the  liquid  at 
all  times. 


Lime-water  Preservative  329 

The  preservative  should  not  be  used  for  more 
than  one  year. 

Lime-water. — A  most  satisfactory  lime-water 
preservative  may  be  made  of  the  following  in- 
gredients: 

\  bushel  fresh  quicklime. 
15  pounds  salt. 

\  pound  cream  of  tartar. 
40  gallons  of  water. 

Slake  the  lime  thoroughly  and  add  the  water 
and  salt.  Stir  it  well.  Dissolve  the  cream  of  tartar 
in  a  little  water  and  add  to  the  whole.  Stir  well. 
Let  the  solution  stand  until  it  is  fully  settled.  Remove 
the  clear  liquid  by  dipping  or  by  means  of  a  siphon. 
Place  the  liquid  in  a  cask  or  tank  and  put  in  the 
eggs.  It  is  desirable  to  keep  the  eggs  in  a  cool  place 
that  has  an  even  temperature.  Have  at  least  one 
and  one-half  inches  of  the  liquid  above  the  eggs. 
New  oak  casks  should  not  be  used  on  account  of 
the  liability  to  color  the  eggs. 

Cold  storage. — Eggs  that  are  kept  in  large  quan- 
tities by  dealers  are  placed  chiefly  in  cold  storage. 
A  low,  even  temperature  is  maintained  by  the  use 
of  ice,  or  by  means  of  ice  machines.  Ice  machines 
have  wholly  superseded  the  use  of  natural  ice  in 
large  establishments. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

DISEASES  AND   ENEMIES 

IT  would  require  an  exhaustive  treatise  by  one 
who  had  given  years  of  study  to  the  subject  to 
present  in  a  thorough  manner  a  discussion  of  the 
various  phases  of  the  many  diseases  to  which  farm 
poultry  are  subject.  Many  of  the  troubles  are 
insidious  and  are  not  yet  well  understood.  However, 
a  few  general  hints  on  the  more  common  diseases, 
and  a  discussion  of  some  of  the  parasites,  may  be 
valuable  to  those  who  have  not  the  time  or  incli- 
nation to  study  the  subject  in  detail.  The  one 
paramount  safeguard  against  disease  is  thorough 
cleanliness;  then  avoid  introducing  infected  fowls. 


LICE 


Various  kinds  of  domesticated  fowls  and  wild 
birds  are  infested  with  parasites  that  are  known 
under  the  popular  name  of  "lice."  There  are 
several  species  of  lice  which  infest  chickens.  Some 
kinds  are  found  only  on  a  certain  class  of  poul- 
try, while  others  are  sometimes  found  on  more 
than  one  kind.  There  are  at  least  four 

(330) 


Lice  and  Filth  331 

species  which  are  very  troublesome  to  chicken- 
raisers,  particularly  to  those  who  do  not  keep 
their  poultry-yards  and  -houses  in  a  cleanly  con- 
dition. Filth  and  dampness  seem  to  favor  the 
propagation  of  these  pests.  Fowls  are  naturally 
cleanly,  particularly  those  that  have  their  liberty 
and,  consequently,  live  under  conditions  nearest 
the  natural  ones.  Weak  fowls  are  always  more 
likely  to  be  troubled  with  lice  than  are  strong, 
healthy,  vigorous  ones.  Many  years  ago  it  was 
thought  that  filth  and  dampness  produced  lice. 
While  these  conditions  undoubtedly  favor  the 
increase  and  development  of  these  pests,  yet  they 
can  only  be  produced  in  a  flock  by  the  introduction 
of  an  infected  bird  or  by  placing  the  fowls  in  infected 
quarters.  The  life-history  of  these  parasites  is 
so  well  known  that  it  is  not  thought  possible  for 
them  to  be  introduced  in  any  other  way.  The 
species  of  lice  which  infest  chickens  vary  consider- 
ably as  to  their  shape  and  size,  yet  in  their  habits 
they  closely  resemble  each  other.  They  are  very 
small  insects,  varying  from  one-fifth  to  less  than 
one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  length.  These  parasites 
rarely  pierce  the  skin  and  suck  the  blood,  as  do 
mites  and  fleas.  They  cause  much  annoyance  by 
crawling  over  the  surface,  and  sometimes  they 
bite  the  skin  in  a  way  that  causes  considerable 
irritation  and  perhaps  some  inflammation.  When 
fowls  are  once  infested  they  may  become  unthrifty 


332  Farm  Poultry 

and  unprofitable  if  not  given  proper  care.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  a  single  pair  of  lice  may  pro- 
duce, through  the  quickly  successive  generations 
which  would  be  reared  within  three  months,  more 
than  100,000  individuals.  As  the  weaker  fowls 
of  the  flock  are  most  likely  to  be  infested,  lice  are 
often  detected  by  the  unthrifty  condition  of  such 
birds.  Upon  examination,  large  numbers  of  these 
lice  may  be  seen  crawling  over  the  skin  underneath 
the  feathers.  They  will  likely  be  most  prevalent 
on  those  parts  which  the  fowl  cannot  reach  with 
the  beak. 

Remedies. — Fowls  may  be  effectually  treated 
in  several  ways.  Substances  may  be  put  upon  the 
bird  which  will  poison  the  lice,  or  the  pests  may 
be  driven  off  by  making  the  fowl  an  uncongenial 
home  for  them,  or  they  may  be  killed  by  the  appli- 
cation of  substances,  like  oil,  which  stop  the  breathing 
pores  and  thus  cause  them  to  die  of  suffocation. 
The  last  plan  is  preferable  in  the  case  of  the  young 
chickens  and  weak  fowls.  Little  chickens  when 
but  a  few  days  old  are  frequently  infested  with 
lice  from  the  mother  or  from  the  surroundings. 
As  these  little  chickens  are  delicate,  a  few  lice  will 
cause  serious  trouble.  In  this  case,  it  is  usually 
advisable  to  place  a  few  drops  of  oil  on  the  head 
and  perhaps  on  the  wings  and  throat  of  each  chicken 
Sweet  oil  or  lard  oil  may  be  used.  Other  oils  of 
about  the  same  consistency  may  answer  the  pur- 


Remedies  for  Lice  333 

pose  quite  as  well.  Older  fowls  should  be  given 
an  opportunity  to  take  dust  baths.  This  is  nature's 
method  and  is  effectual  if  the  fowls  will  bathe 
thoroughly.  Many  of  the  heavier  fowls,  however, 
do  not  care  to  take  dust  baths  frequently,  nor  to 
do  the  work  thoroughly  when  they  undertake  it; 
consequently  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  use 
artificial  methods  to  kill  or  drive  away  the  lice, 
when  they  once  become  well  established  on  adult 
fowls.  Powdered  sulphur  or  fresh  insect  powder 
dusted  well  among  the  feathers  is  found  to  be  effi- 
cient. Fowls  are  sometimes  placed  in  compara- 
tively tight  boxes  with  their  heads  protruding 
through  close-fitting  openings,  the  box  then  being 
filled  with  sulfur  fumes  for  several  minutes.  This 
is  said  to  completely  destroy  the  pests  and  in  no 
way  to  injure  the  fowls. 

When  poultry-houses  become  infested  with  lice 
a  complete  cleansing  of  the  building  is  required. 
Movable  fixtures  should  be  taken  out  and  the 
walls  thoroughly  washed  and  cleansed.  The  interior 
should  be  freshly  whitewashed  or  sprayed  with 
chlorides  or  other  efficient  insecticides.  Kerosene 
emulsion  is  effective  if  the  spraying  is  thoroughly 
done.  Some  modern  spraying  machines  are  so 
constructed  that  kerosene  oil  may  be  mixed  with 
water  in  a  fine  spray  to  answer  every  purpose.  This 
method  is  easier  than  to  apply  the  kerosene  in  the 
form  of  a  soap  emulsion. 


334  Farm  Poultry 

MITES 

These  parasites  are  frequently  called  "lice/' 
although  they  are  entirely  different  from  the  ani- 
mals described  under  that  name.  Mites  are  usually 
smaller  than  lice.  The  red  poultry  mite  is  one  of 
the  greatest  pests.  It  is  frequently  called  the 
"summer  louse"  and  is  found  in  great  numbers 
in  the  poultry-house  and  other  places  frequented 
by  fowjs  in  the  summer  time.  It  is  frequently 
seen  about  cracks  and  crevices,  underneath  and 
about  the  perches,  and  also  in  the  nests,  partic- 
ularly those  of  sitting  hens.  It  multiplies  rapidly, 
so  that  if  a  few  have  been  introduced  into  a 
poultry-house,  the  place  may  become  overrun  within 
a  short  time. 

The  habit  of  these  pests  is  very  different  from 
that  of  lice.  The  mites  breed  in  cracks  and  chinks 
about  the  perches  and  nests  and  go  on  the  body 
of  the  fowls  at  night  to  feed.  They  pierce  the  skin 
and  fill  themselves  with  blood.  Though  they  are 
small,  each  insect  can  remove  an  appreciable  amount 
of  blood.  The  fowl  not  only  suffers  from  the  loss 
of  blood  but  is  disturbed  during  the  night  when 
it  should  have  perfect  rest  and  be  free  from  annoy- 
ance. Sitting  hens  are  so  much  annoyed  that  they 
are  compelled  to  leave  the  nests  in  order  to  relieve 
themselves  of  the  parasites.  If  the  nests  and 
perches,  and  the  cracks  and  crevices  about  them,  are 


Mites — Gapes  335 

kept  free  from  the  pests,  the  fowls  will  not  be  dis- 
turbed. Free  use  of  kerosene  oil  or  kerosene  emulsion 
about  the  nests  and  perches  will  usually  suffice. 
Some  manufacturers  have  taken  advantage  of 
the  habit  of  these  pests  and  construct  perches 
which  will  not  permit  them  to  pass  from  the  places 
of  concealment  about  the  poultry  house  to  the 
body  of  the  fowl,  each  perch  being  supported  by 
means  of  slender  iron  supports,  the  bases  of  which 
are  placed  in  small  cups  filled  with  oil. 

A  little  care  and  watchfulness  on  the  part  of 
the  poultry  attendant  to  keep  the  poultry-house 
entirely  free  from  mites  will  protect  the  fowls 
from  these  pests. 

GAPES 

Gapes  sometimes  destroy  large  numbers  of 
small  chickens;  in  fact,  on  some  farms  during 
certain  seasons  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  rear 
broods  of  young  chickens  that  are  entirely  free  from 
it,  particularly  if  the  young  chickens  are  kept  under 
the  ordinary  conditions.  It  is  well  known,  that 
gapes  are  caused  by  a  small  worm  known  as  Synga- 
mus  trachealis.  This  worm  is  of  a  reddish  color 
and  varies  in  length  from  three-eighths  to  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch.  The  two  sexes  are  united, 
which  fact  has  given  rise  to  the  name  of  "branched 
worm."  On  account  of  its  color  it  is  also  some- 


336  Farm  Poultry 

times  known  as  the  "red  worm."  It  is  stated  that 
the  male  is  always  attached  to  the  female,  the  for- 
mer being  the  smaller  of  the  two.  These  worms 
are  found  in  the  windpipe  or  trachea  of  the  chickens, 
where  they  are  attached  to  the  membraneous 
lining  of  this  air-passage.  They  are  nourished  by 
sucking  the  blood  of  the  fowl  and  cause  consider- 
able irritation  and  inflammation,  particularly  if 
the  chickens  are  weak.  The  stronger  and  more 
robust  undoubtedly  are  considerably  inconve- 
nienced, but  the  attacks  are  not  severe  enough  to 
prevent  them  from  making  a  fairly  good  growth. 
It  is  stated,  on.  good  authority,  that  as  many  as 
thirty  or  forty  of  these  worms  have  been  found 
in  a  single  chicken. 

Dr.  H.  D.  Walker,  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  states 
that  the  earthworm  is  the  natural  host  of  this  pest. 
Chickens,  robins  and  other  birds  have  become 
infested  with  the  gape  worm  by  feeding  them  infested 
earthworms.  Comparatively  few  gape  worms  are 
sufficient  to  destroy  the  life  of  weak  young  chickens. 
Many  more,  however,  would  not  necessarily  destroy 
a  vigorous  bird,  either  young  or  adult.  These 
worms  are  frequently  dislodged  by  coughing  or 
sneezing.  When  they  are  thrown  out  in  this  manner 
other  fowls  may  eat  them  and  in  turn  become 
infected. 

Remedies. — Keep  little  chickens  in  a  dry  place 
and  away  from  infected  ground.  As  the  weak 


Remedies  and  Preventive  Measures  337 

fowls  are  likely  to  succumb  first,  it  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  the  brood  be  kept  in  as  healthy 
and  vigorous  condition  as  possible. 

It  is  recommended  to  dislodge  the  worms  by 
introducing  into  the  trachea  a  horsehair,  doubled 
so  as  to  form  a  loop,  then  give  it  several  turns, 
and  slowly  withdraw  it.  As  the  loop  is  withdrawn 
the  dislodged  worms  may  be  removed  or  coughed 
up  by  the  fowl.  This  operation  repeated  several 
times  will  frequently  give  relief  to  aggravated 
cases.  Other  good  authorities  recommend  the 
introduction  of  a  feather  which  has  been  moist- 
ened with  turpentine.  The  turpentine  will  cause 
the  dislodgment  of  the  worms  and  the  chickens 
will  sneeze  or  cough  them  up. 

Some  practical  poultry-keepers  recommend 
placing  an  infested  brood  in  a  barrel  or  compar- 
atively tight  box  and  dusting  in  the  the  compart- 
ment a  considerable  quantity  of  fine  air-slaked 
lime.  The  infested  chickens  will  be  required  to 
breathe  the  air  heavily  laden  with  this  fine  lime, 
which  will  cause  the  dislodgment  of  many  of  the 
worms.  While  this  treatment  is  rather  severe 
and  may  cause  the  death  of  some  of  the  weakest 
of  the  birds,  yet  it  will  sometimes  prove  efficacious 
in  saving  the  larger  proportion  of  a  brood  which 
otherwise  might  succumb. 

Preventive  measures  are  more  satisfactory  than 
remedial  ones.  Keep  the  chickens  in  a  dry  place 


338  Farm  Poultry 

and  in  as  healthy  and  vigorous  a  condition  as  pos- 
sible,   and   away   from   sources   of   contamination. 


ROUP 

Roup  is  a  common  disease  among  farm  poul- 
try and  one  that  often  causes  serious  loss.  When 
roup  is  permitted  to  remain  in  a  flock  unchecked, 
the  loss  from  death  alone  may  be  considerable, 
and  the  loss  occasioned  by  many  sick  birds  which 
are  forj  a  long  time  thoroughly  incapacitated  for 
usefulness  may  be  quite  as  great.  Roup  is  con- 
sidered contagious  by  the  most  eminent  authori- 
ties. It  passes  from  one  fowl  to  another  of  the 
same  flock,  and  may  be  carried  from  one  flock  to 
another  by  the  introduction  of  infected  birds. 
It  has  been  considered  by  some  as  being  pro- 
duced by  unfavorable  conditions.  This  is  not 
strictly  true.  Undoubtedly  unsanitary  conditions 
are  potent  factors  in  the  development  of  the  dis- 
ease when  the  fowls  are  once  exposed.  Tender 
fowls,  or  those  requiring  particularly  good  care, 
are  more  susceptible  to  roup  than  are  the  more 
healthy  or  robust.  The  introduction  of  the 
specific  organism  of  the  disease  is  necessary 
for  its  development;  hence  it  is  a  communicable 
disease. 

Symptoms. — Among  the  first  symptoms  that 
will  be  noticed  is  a  thin,  watery  discharge  from 


Roup — Symptoms  and   Treatment  339 

the  nostrils,  followed  by  obstructed  breathing.  A 
few  cases  of  harsh  breathing  that  had  not  pre- 
viously been  manifest  should  be  looked  upon  with 
suspicion.  These  cases  may  be  readily  detected 
by  passing  through  the  poultry  house  in  the  eve- 
ning when  all  is  quiet.  In  the  later  stages  of  the 
disease  the  watery  discharge  at  the  nostrils  becomes 
thicker  and  more  sticky,  which  causes  frequent 
sneezing  in  order  to  prevent  the  air-passages  from 
becoming  completely  closed. 

Dr.  D.  E.  Salmon  says*  that  the  inflammation 
extends,  as  the  disease  advances,  from  the  mem- 
brane of  the  nasal  cavities  to  those  of  other  con- 
necting passages.  As  the  orbital  space  which  sur- 
rounds the  eye  connects  with  the  nasal  passage, 
this  is  frequently  involved.  The  membrane  of 
the  orbital  cavity  becomes  inflamed  and  swollen, 
and  in  severe  cases  apparently  forces  the  eye  from 
its  socket.  The  sides  of  the  head  become  unduly 
swollen  and  the  fowl  frequently  becomes  entirely 
blind,  the  birds  presenting  a  most  unsightly  appear- 
ance. Breathing  is  performed  with  difficulty,  and 
a  thick  discharge  at  this  time,  may  escape  from 
the  nostrils.  Death  frequently  follows  after  these 
serious  symptoms. 

Treatment. — Prevent  healthy  birds  from  becom- 
ing contaminated  by  removing  them  to  clean 
quarters,  or  by  the  removal  of  the  sick  birds  and 

*  "The  Diseases  of  Poultry,"  pp.  32-34. 


340  Farm  Poultry 

thoroughly  cleaning  and  disinfecting  the  poultry- 
house.  Give  wholesome  and  easily  digested  food 
and  keep  the  fowls  in  as  healthy  and  vigorous 
condition  as  possible.  Antiseptic  solutions  are 
to  be  injected  into  the  nostrils  and  on  the  roof 
of  the  mouth.  If  large  swellings  have  appeared 
which  are  filled  with  cheesy  pus,  this  should 
be  removed  and  these  cavities  be  injected  with 
antiseptics.  The  following  solutions  are  recom- 
mended: 

1.  Two  per  cent  solution  of  creoline. 

2.  Two  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

3.  Peroxide  of  hydrogen  and  water,  equal  parts. 

4.  One  grain  of  permanganate  of  potash  to  an 

ounce  of  water. 

5.  Kerosene  oil  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  lard 

or  olive  oil.    Some  poultrymen  recommend 

the  use  of   pure   kerosene   oil,    a   drop   in 

each  nostril  of  the  infected  fowl. 

When  diphtheritic  roup  develops,  white  patches 

are  frequently  seen  on  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and 

on  the  connecting  air-passages.    Later  these  patches 

become    more    or    less    yellow.     Dr.    Salmon    also 

says*  that  the  sick  birds  should  be  placed  in  clean, 

warm,    well-ventilated    quarters,    where    they    can 

be  readily  examined  and  where  they  will  not  be 

exposed   to   drafts   of  air.     In   other  words,   these 

quarters   should   be   most    favorable   for   invalids. 

*"The  Diseases  of  Poultry,"  pp.  224,  225. 


Treatment  for  Roup  341 

He  recommends  the  application,  to  the  diphtheritic 
spots  in  the  mouth  and  eyes,  of  a  2  per  cent  solution 
of  carbolic  acid  in  water  or  a  2  per  cent  solution 
of  creoline,  and  that  some  of  the  same  should  be 
injected  in  small  quantities  into  the  nostrils.  The 
removal  of  this  diphtheritic  membrane  is  recom- 
mended if  it  can  be  accomplished  without  bleed- 
ing. Tincture  of  iodine  has  been  applied  to  the 
diseased  parts  successfully.  Boric  acid,  15  grains 
to  an  ounce  of  water,  may  be  applied  to  the  roof 
of  the  mouth,  nostrils  and  eyes.  This  application 
is  often  made  with  benefit,  and  is  considered 
safe.  Dr.  Salmon  further  recommends  the  use 
of  chlorate  of  potassium  and  salicylic  acid  in 
the  following  proportions:  2  grains  of  salicylic 
acid  and  35  grains  of  chlorate  in  1  ounce  of 
water,  to  which  may  be  added  1  ounce  of  glycer- 
ine. This  should  be  applied  two  or  three  times  a 
day  on  the  diphtheritic  spots  and  may  be  given 
internally  in  doses  of  about  a  teaspoonful  to 
adult  fowls. 

"  Disinfect  thoroughly  by  sprinkling  the  walls  of 
the  building  and  the  ground  frequented  by  the 
diseased  fowls  with  carbolic  acid  water  (1%  ounces 
of  carbolic  acid  to  a  quart  of  water) .  Wash  feed- 
ing-troughs, water-dishes,  etc.,  with  the  same 
solution.  Cover  the  earth  with  straw  or  boards 
and  keep  the  fowls  perfectly  dry. 

"Mix  with  the  soft  food  several  hours  before 


342  Farm  Poultry 

feeding,  as  a  curative  and  a  preventive,  a  pinch 
of  the  following  mixture  for  each  fowl: 

Hyposulfite  of  soda 50  grams 

Salicylate  of  soda 50       " 

Pulverized  yellow  gentian 200       " 

Pulverized  ginger 200       " 

Pulverized  sulfate  of  iron 100       " 

"Give   sulfate    of   iron    in    the    drinking-water, 
grams  to  a  quart  of  water."* 


CHOLERA 

Dr.  Salmon  statesf  that  fowl  cholera  attacks 
chickens,  geese,  ducks,  turkeys,  pigeons,  and  in 
fact  all  varieties  of  domesticated  fowls.  The 
infection  often  takes  place  through  drinking-water, 
or  partaking  of  food  that  is  contaminated  by  the 
excrement  of  sick  birds.  It  is  possible  for  fowls 
to  be  infected  through  wounds  or  by  means  of 
the  germs  which  may  be  inhaled  in  the  form  of 
dust.  He  further  states  that  the  disease  is  gen- 
erally brought  in  by  the  introduction  of  infected 
birds  or  with  eggs  that  have  been  purchased  for 
hatching.  This  disease  may  be  communicated 
to  mice  and  rabbits  by  inoculation. 

Symptoms. — "The  symptoms  of  American  fowl 
cholera    were    first    described    by    Dr.    Salmon    in 

*  "Journal  D'Agriculture  Pratique,"  1895,  Tome  2,  pp.  913,  914. 
f  "The  Diseases  of  Poultry,"  pp.  233,  234. 


Fowl  Cholera  343 

1880.  They  include  the  voiding  of  feces,  of  which 
the  part  that  is  normally  white  is  yellow.  The 
white  part  of  the  feces  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys, 
and  the  yellow  discoloration  of  this  excrement 
is  usually  the  first  indication  of  disease.  Shortly 
thereafter  the  droppings  become  thin  and  fluid, 
and  they  are  voided  frequently  and  enveloped 
by  a  layer  of  thin  mucus.  The  fowl  becomes 
depressed;  it  stands  still  or  assumes  a  sitting  pos- 
ture, goes  into  a  sunny,  warm  place,  if  possible. 
The  plumage  becomes  ruffled,  the  head  is  drawn 
down,  the  comb  becomes  pale  and  bloodless,  and  the 
appetite  is  depressed  or  lost.  The  depression  and 
torpidity  of  the  fowl  increase  until  it  , seems  to 
become  unconscious.  .  .  .  The  bird  then  becomes 
thin  and  weak,  and  sometimes  passes  into  a 
stupor  and  dies.  In  other  cases,  it  may  have 
convulsions  prior  to  death."* 

Treatment. — "The  treatment  of  individual  fowls 
afflicted  with  such  a  highly  contagious  disease 
as  true  fowl  cholera  is  not  to  be  recommended, 
because,  in  the  first  place,  so  long  as  the  infected 
fowl  remains  around  there  is  danger  that  its  poi- 
sonous products  may  be  carried  to  healthy  birds; 
secondly,  there  is  little  chance  of  curing  it  and  it 
is  hardly  worth  while  to  try. 

"The  important  point  in  this  connection  is  the 
prevention  of  disease,  and  fowl  cholera  can  usu- 

*  "Diseases  and  Enemies  of  Poultry,"  Pearson  &  Warren,  Bulletin 
No.  17,  Pennsylvania  State  Department  of  Agriculture. 


344  Farm  Poultry 

ally  be  stopped  by  preventing  the  introduction 
of  fowls  suffering  from  it,  or  that  come  from  infected 
localities.  If  the  disease  is  once  introduced  the  most 
stringent  measures  should  be  enforced  as  regards 
cleanliness,  disinfection,  and  the  total  destruction 
of  the  carcasses  of  the  dead  birds.  The  birds  that 
are  still  healthy  should  be  removed  from  the  flock 
and  placed  in  a  wholesome  locality.  The  drop- 
pings from  the  diseased  fowls  should  be  burned  or 
thoroughly  disinfected  by  mixing  with  a  10  per 
cent  solution  of  sulfuric  acid  or  with  a  quantity 
of  lime  equal  in  amount  to  the  manure.  The  build- 
ing should  be  disinfected  by  cleaning  it  very  thor- 
oughly, flushing  the  floor  with  a  saturated  solution 
of  copperas  and  spraying  the  interior  with  a  5  per 
cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  followed  by  white- 
washing. If  the  pens  and  runs  can  be  abandoned 
for  a  year  and  grass  or  crops  grown  in  them,  this 
is  the  best  plan,  but  if  it  is  not  possible  to  do  this, 
they  should  be  cleaned  with  as  great  thoroughness 
as  possible  and  slaked  lime  scattered  over  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  which  should  be  plowed. 

"It  should  be  remembered  that  the  germs  of 
fowl  cholera  may  be  carried  in  the  feathers,  so 
that  a  perfectly  healthy  fowl,  coming  from  a  dis- 
eased flock,  may  carry  the  disease  to  another  flock 
a  long  distance  away.  These  germs  may  also  be 
carried  on  the  shoes  and  clothing  of  persons;  by 
vermin,  as  rats  or  mice,  or  they  may  become  attached 


White  Diarrhcea  345 

to  light  objects,  such  as  leaves,  and  be  carried 
long  distances  by  the  wind.  If  the  disease  exists 
among  the  fowls  along  the  water-course,  those 
lower  down  the  stream  may  receive  the  germs  with 
their  water-supply.  So,  whenever  this  disease  pre- 
vails in  a  locality,  one  cannot  guard  his  fowls  too 
carefully."* 

BACILLARY    WHITE    DIARRHEA   OF   YOUNG   CHICKS 

The  term  " white  diarrhea"  undoubtedly  has,  for 
many  years,  been  used  to  designate  a  variety  of 
bowel  disorders  in  which  the  discharges  of  the 
digestive  organs  are  more  or  less  whitish  in  char- 
acter and  show  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  symptoms 
of  diarrhea.  But  not  until  recently  has  it  been 
determined  beyond  question  that  the  most  serious 
of  these  disorders  is  due  to  a  specific  bacillus  Bac- 
terium pullorum.  It  has  long  been  known  that  the 
so-called  white  diarrhea  was  sometimes  one  of  the 
most  serious  and  fatal  disorders  to  which  little 
chickens  are  subject,  but  knowledge  as  to  the  true 
nature  of  the  disease  has  come  through  recent 
investigation  and  study. 

t" Symptoms  of  bacillary  white  diarrhea. — As  in 
many  other  diseases  the  symptoms  may  vary  within 
certain  limits  in  the  individuals  affected  .  .  . 

*  "Diseases  and  Enemies  of  Poultry,"  Bulletin  No.  17,  Pennsyl- 
vania State  Department  of  Agriculture. 

t  Storrs  (Conn.)  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  60. 


346  Farm  Poultry 

but  most  of  the  following  will  be  apparent  in  epi- 
demics of  any  considerable  size.  The  earliest  deaths 
may  occur  within  a  very  short  time  after  hatching 
without  any  prominent  symptoms  except  perhaps 
weakness  and  lack  of  vitality.  The  characteristic 
whitish  discharge  from  the  vent  soon  makes  its 
appearance  in  the  flock  .  .  .  the  discharge  may 
be  slight  or  profuse,  in  color  white  or  creamy,  some- 
times mixed  with  brown.  The  voided  matter  has  a 
more  or  less  sticky  or  glairy  character.  It  may 
streak  down  below  the  vent  or  may  cling  to  the  down 
sufficiently  to  seal  up  the  vent.  .  .  .  Chicks 
soon  become  listless  and  sleepy  .  .  .  wings  droop 
or  project  slightly  beyond  the  body,  with  feathers 
ruffled.  In  acute  cases  the  eyes  are  closed  and 
chicks  become  indifferent  to  everything  about  them. 
Frequently  when  endeavoring  to  void  excreta  the 
chicks  utter  a  shrill  twitter  apparently  a  cry  of 
pain.  The  weakling  is  almost  always  big-bellied, 
the  abdomen  protruding  to  the  rear  so  that  it 
bunches  out  behind.  .  .  With  few  exceptions  deaths 
from  typical  bacillary  white  diarrhea  occur  while 
the  chicks  are  under  one  month  of  age.  Chicks 
which  have  had  bacillary  white  diarrhea  seem  to 
be  greatly  weakened  in  constitution  and  fall  an 
easy  victim  to  disorders  which  would  be  easily  re- 
sisted by  normal  chicks. 

"The  mother  hen  is  the  original  source  of  infec- 
tion of  the  chick   .   .   .   although  the  disease  may 


Prevention   of  White   Diarrhea  347 

be  transmitted  through  the  food  during  the  first 
three  or  four  days  of  the  chick's  life. 

"Prevention. — Since  the  disease  cannot  appar- 
ently be  transmitted  through  the  food  supply  after 
the  chicks  have  reached  the  age  of  three  or  four  days, 
every  means  should  be  pursued  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  the  infection  during  this  critical  period.  We  sug- 
gest the  segregation  of  the  chicks  in  small  lots  during 
this  interval;  perfect  disinfection  and  cleanliness  of 
brooders  and  brood  coops;  food  and  water  supplied 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  contamination  by 
the  droppings;  the  use  in  the  brooder  of  a  liberal 
amount  of  fine  absorptive  litter  which  will  quickly 
cover  and  seal  up  the  droppings.  (For  this  purpose 
we  have  used  alfalfa  meal  with  much  satisfaction.) 

"  Raise  and  maintain  the  vigor  and  vitality  of  the 
breeding  stock  and  chicks  by  every  reasonable 
means  known  to  poultrymen.  .  .  . 

"If  the  breeding  stock  proves  infected  there  are 
two  courses  of  procedure  open;  (a)  market  the  entire 
flock  or  refrain  from  using  their  eggs  for  hatching  or 
(b)  install  trap  nests  in  the  breeding-pens  .  .  and 
ascertain  which  individual  hens  are  producing 
infected  chicks,  and  remove  them." 

SCALY   LEGS 

This  disease  is  caused  by  a  parasite  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  the  mange  of  the  cat  and  dog. 


348  Farm  Poultry 

The  disease  is  considered  to  be  contagious,  though 
it  does  not  spread  rapidly.  It  is  most  frequently 
noticed  in  old  fowls  of  the  heavy  breeds,  as  of  the 
Asiatic  types.  Ducks  and  geese  are  not  affected  with 
this  trouble. 

Treatment. — Soak  with  oil — sweet  oil  or  lard 
oil  mixed  with  kerosene  is  recommended.  Kero- 
sene alone  is  sometimes  applied  with  most  excel- 
lent results.  However,  it  is  a  somewhat  harsher 
treatment  than  is  necessary.  Those  who  keep  on 
hand  a  jstock  solution  of  kerosene  emulsion  may 
find  this  a  most  excellent  remedy  for  scaly  legs. 
It  should  be  applied  thoroughly.  A  few  applica- 
tions are  usually  sufficient.  If  thorough  work  is  to 
be  accomplished  the  poultry-houses  should  be 
disinfected. 

FREEZING 

Valuable  fowls  sometimes  die  from  frosted  combs 
and  wattles.  Remedial  measures  are  not  so  satis- 
factory as  preventive  ones.  The  most  that  can  be 
done  is  to  give  good  nursing.  If  the  fowls  are  dis- 
covered to  be  frosted  before  the  organs  affected 
have  thawed  out,  the  frost  should  be  removed  by 
applications  of  cold  water  or  snow.  The  gradual 
thawing  of  the  frozen  parts  may  sometimes  save 
them.  After  thawing  has  taken  place,  the  parts 
should  be  smeared  with  grease,  vaseline  or  cosmoline. 


Freezing — Egg-eating  349 

It  is  thought  to  be  advantageous  to  keep  the  fowls 
in  a  fairly  cool  room. 


BUMBLE    FOOT 

Bumble  foot  is  caused  by  bruises  on  the  bottom 
of  the  feet.  These  bruises  are  sometimes  followed 
by  swellings  which  suppurate  and  become  greatly 
enlarged  if  they  are  not  lanced  and  the  pus  per- 
mitted to  escape.  Causes  which  produce  bruises 
should  be  removed.  Heavy  fowls  that  are  required 
to  fly  from  rather  high  perches  and  to  alight  on 
hard  and  uneven  surfaces  are  liable  to  suffer  from 
bumble  foot.  In  serious  cases  it  is  advisable  to 
inclose  the  feet  in  little  bags  filled  with  poultice 
in  order  to  induce  free  suppuration.  If  the  pus 
is  not  permitted  to  escape,  it  becomes  cheesy  and 
finally  dries  sufficiently  to  form  a  hard  mass,  which 
produces  a  permanent  enlargement. 

EGG-EATING 

This  habit  sometimes  becomes  a  most  serious 
vice  in  the  poultry-yard.  It  spreads  from  fowl 
to  fowl.  Fowls  become  very  fond  of  eggs  when 
they  once  learn  to  eat  them.  The  habit  usually 
starts  through  accident,  either  by  eggs  being  broken 
or  frozen.  If  eggs  are  not  permitted  to  freeze  in 
the  poultry-house,  and  care  is  taken  to  prevent 


350  Farm  Poultry 

their  being  broken,  the  habit  is  not  likely  to  be 
contracted.  As  soon  as  it  is  discovered  that  a  fowl 
has  the  habit  well  formed  this  fowl  should  be  removed 
from  the  others  before  the  habit  is  spread.  Unless 
the  bird  is  a  specially  valuable  one,  it  is  often  advis- 
able to  inflict  the  death  penalty. 

FEATHER-EATING 

Feather-eating,  like  egg-eating,  may  become  a 
most  objectionable  habit.  Fowls  of  active  breeds 
that  are  closely  confined  are  more  likely  to  learn 
feather-eating  or  feather-pulling  than  those  that 
are  given  wide  range  and  plenty  of  wholesome 
food.  Close  confinement  with  improper  ration 
will  often  lead  to  this  vice.  When  once  the  habit 
is  well  formed  it  may  become  most  troublesome. 
Fowls  pluck  the  feathers  from  each  other.  Those 
on  the  back  at  the  root  of  the  tail  or  high  up  on 
the  breast  are  likely  to  be  plucked  first.  If  but 
few  fowls  have  learned  the  habit,  it  is  sometimes 
recommended  to  file  the  beak  so  that  the  front 
and  sides  will  not  close  tightly.  This  will  prevent 
the  bird  from  pulling  feathers  but  will  permit  it 
to  eat  ordinary  food  readily.  When  several  fowls 
of  a  flock  have  but  slightly  contracted  the  habit,  a 
wide  range  with  change  of  diet,  including  plenty  of 
animal  food,  will  usually  suffice  to  correct  the  evil. 
Above  all,  permit  the  fowls  to  take  plenty  of  exercise. 


Feather-eating — Diarrhea  351 

DIARRHEA 

Diarrhea  is  caused  by  some  irritation  of  the 
digestive  system.  Depression  and  loss  of  appe- 
tite frequently  precede  it.  If  the  diarrhea  is  at 
all  serious  the  excrement  may  be  mixed  with  mucus 
or  blood.  Fowls  suffering  from  this  disease  should 
be  placed  in  comfortable  quarters  and  given  clean, 
wholesome  food  that  is  easily  digested.  Foods  of 
gelatinous  nature,  like  cooked  linseed  meal,  are 
specially  recommended.  Some  poultry  men  place 
a  high  value  on  charcoal  which  has  been  broken 
into  small  pieces,  about  the  size  of  a  kernel  of  corn. 
This  is  placed  before  them  and  left  to  the  judgment 
of  the  fowls  to  eat  what  is  needed.  A  few  drops  of 
laudanum  is  recommended  in  severe  cases. 

SALT   POISONING 

Salt  in  small  doses,  as  before  stated,  is  very 
beneficial,  but  large  quantities  may  produce  death. 
It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  one-half  an 
ounce  to  one  ounce  is  fatal  to  a  chicken.  Salt  fish 
and  some  salt  meats,  and  the  brine  in  which  meats 
have  been  preserved,  are  specially  dangerous. 

Whites  of  eggs  and  the  liquor  of  boiled  flax- 
seed  are  recommended  as  remedies.  Laudanum 
and  finely  powdered  chalk  in  water,  together  or 
singly,  may  sometimes  be  given  with  good  effect. 


352  Farm  Poultry 

Laudanum   is    especially   valuable   when    consider- 
able pain  is  manifest. 


RATS 

Rats  sometimes  become  very  troublesome  in 
poultry-houses,  and  the  question  of  their  extermi- 
nation is  often  a  most  perplexing  one.  Precau- 
tionary measures  are  usually  the  most  satisfactory. 
If  the  buildings  are  so  constructed  that  rats  can- 
not burrow  under  them,  the  battle  is  largely  won. 
If,  however,  the  rats  find  suitable  homes  about 
poultry-houses,  and  cannot  be  driven  out  by  ordin- 
ary methods,  much  annoyance  and  often  severe 
loss  may  result.  When  traps  and  cats  will  not 
suffice,  more  extreme  measures  must  be  adopted. 
Sometimes  it  is  advisable  to  remove  the  fowls 
temporarily  and  hunt  the  rats  by  means  of  ferrets. 
In  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  resort  to  poison- 
ing. In  a  general  way  it  may  be  stated  that  animals 
should  not  be  poisoned  except  in  extreme  cases.  The 
author  has  on  several  occasions  found  it  necessary 
to  use  poison  to  rid  the  premises  of  these  pests.  A 
little  strychnine  was  placed  in  each  of  many  small 
pieces  of  cheese.  These  little  pieces  were  dropped 
into  the  rat  holes  and  other  places  frequented  by 
the  vermin,  care  being  taken  in  every  case  to  cover 
the  holes  with  boards  so  that  the  fowls  would  be 
prevented  from  gaining  access  to  the  poison.  While 


Hawks,  Crows,  Etc.  353 

the  fowls  were  not  killed  or  in  any  way. injured  by 
this  method  of  killing  rats,  the  practice  is  always 
accompanied  with  more  or  less  danger,  particu- 
larly as  it  is  necessary  to  place  the  poison  near 
places  frequented  by  the  fowls. 

HAWKS,    CROWS,    ETC. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  protect  the  yards 
and  runs  from  the  depredations  of  these  chicken 
thieves.  Crows  sometimes  become  so  bold  that 
they  are  serious  pests  in  yards  where  little  chickens 
are  given  their  liberty.  Covering  the  yard  with 
wire  netting  is  a  perfect  protection.  If  there  are 
bushes  in  the  yard,  under  which  the  fowls  may 
hide,  the  depredations  will  be  much  lessened. 


APPENDIX 

SOME   IMPORTANT  POULTRY  PUBLICATIONS 

AMERICAN  STANDARD  OF  PERFECTION. — American  Poultry  Associa- 
tion. Published  by  the  Association. 

AMERICAN  STANDARD  POULTRY  BOOK. — John  Taggart.  Published 
by  Wm.  L.  Allison,  New  York. 

ANIMAL  PROTEIN  FOR  DUCKS. — New  York  State  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  Bulletin  No.  259. 

ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATING  AND  BROODING. — Reliable  Poultry  Journal, 
Quincy,  HI. 

APPLIANCES  AND  METHODS  FOR  PEDIGREE  POULTRY  BREEDING. — 
Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  159. 

ASIATICS. — Reliable  Poultry  Journal,  Quincy,  111. 

BANTAM  FOWL. — Reliable  Poultry  Journal,  Quincy,  111. 

BLACKHEADS  IN  TURKEYS. — Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  Bulletin  No.  124;  Oregon  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  Bulletin  No.  95. 

BOOK  OF  POULTRY. — L.  Wright.  Published  by  Cassell  &  Co., 
London. 

BREEDING  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION. — Maine  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  Bulletin  No.  192. 

BREEDS,  POULTRY  RAISING. — Colorado  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletin  No.  164. 

BREEDS. — Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  150. 

THE  BOOK  OF  HAMBURGS. — Theo.  Hines.  Published  by  Inland 
Poultry  Journal  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

THE  BRIGGS  SYSTEM,  PROFITS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  SOLVED. — 
Edgar  Briggs,  Springfield,  Ohio. 

(355) 


356  Appendix 

BROILERS  AND  ROASTERS. — Jno.  H.  Robinson.  Farm  Poultry  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  Boston. 

BROODING. — West  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bul- 
letin. 

BROODER,  FRESH-AIR. — Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  No.  193. 

BUILDING  POULTRY-HOUSES. — Cornell  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  No.  274. 

CAPONS  AND  CAPONIZING. — G.  Q.  Dow,  New  York. 

CAPONS  AND  CAPONIZING. — United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  452. 

CAPONS  FOR  PROFIT. — Cyphers. 

CHICK  BOOK. — Reliable  Poultry  Journal,  Quincy,  111. 

CHICKEN  HATCHING  AND  REARING. — H.  A.  House,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

COMMON  SENSE  POULTRY  DOCTOR. — John  H.  Robinson,   Boston. 

CURTAIN-FRONT  POULTRY-HOUSE. — Theo.  Whitman.  American 
Poultry  Journal  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHICK. — Frank  R.  Lillie.   H.  Holt  &  Co.,  N.  Y. 

DISEASES  OF  POULTRY. — Dr.  D.  E.  Salmon.  Published  by  Geo.  E. 
Howard  &  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

THE  DOLLAR  HEN. — M.  M.  Hastings.    Acadian  Press. 

DUCK  CULTURE. — James  Rankin.  Published  by  the  Author,  South 
Easton,  Mass. 

DUCKS  AND  GEESE. — Reliable  Poultry  Journal,  Quincy,  111. 

DUCKS  AND  GEESE. — United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  164. 

DRAWN  vs.  UNDRAWN  POULTRY. — United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Circular  No.  70. 

ECONOMY  OF  USING  ANIMAL  FOOD  IN  POULTRY  FEEDING. — Bulletin 
No.  149.  Published  by  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

EGG  AND  POULTRY  RAISING  AT  HOME. — M.  M.  Elkinton.  Double- 
day,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 

EGG  PRODUCTION. — Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 
No.  193. 

EGG  TRADE  OF  UNITED  STATES. — United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  Animal  Industry,  Circular  No.  140. 


Appendix  357 

EGGS  AND  THEIR  USES  AS  FOOD. — United  States  Department  of 

Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  128. 
EGGS — CLASSES  OF,  FOR  MARKET. — United  States  Department  of 

Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Circular  No.  140. 
EGGS  AND  EGG  FARMS. — Reliable  Poultry  Journal,  Quincy,  111. 
EXPERIMENTS  WITH  GEESE. — Eighth  Annual  Report.     Published 

by  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Kingston, 

R.  I. 
EXPERIMENTS  WITH  TURKEYS. — Sixth  Annual  Report.    Published 

by  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Kingston, 

R.I. 
FACTS   ABOUT    WHITE   DIARRHEA. — Dr.   P.   T.   Woods.     Reliable 

Poultry  Journal  Publishing  Co.,    Quincy,  111. 
FATTENING  FOWLS. — Ernest  Cobb.    Published  by  The  Feathered 

World,    London. 
THE  FEATHERS  PRACTICAL  PIGEON  BOOK. — Josiah  C.  Long.    G.  E. 

Howard  Publishing  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 
FEEDING   EXPERIMENTS   WITH   LAYING   HENS. — Bulletin   No.    90. 

Published   by   New   York   Agricultural   Experiment   Station, 

Geneva,  N.  Y. 
FIRST  LESSONS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING. — J.  H.  Robinson.     Farm 

Poultry  Publishing  Association,  Boston. 
FROM  THE  SHELL  TO  THE  SHOW  ROOM. — R.  E.  Jones,  and  Theo. 

Hewee.   Published  by  Inland  Poultry  Journal  Co.,  Indianopolis, 

Ind. 
FOWLS:  CARE  AND  FEEDING. — G.  C.  Watson,  Farmers'  Bulletin 

No.  41.    Published  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  D.  C. 
GAPEWORMS  OF  FOWLS. — H.  D.  Walker.   Published  by  the  Author, 

Newburg,  N.  Y. 

GAPES. — Delaware  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  47. 
GEESE,  STANDARD  VARIETIES  AND  MANAGEMENT. — United  States 

Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64. 
GOOSE  BREEDING. — Tenth  Annual  Report.    Published  by  Rhode 

Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Kingston,  R.  I. 
GOOSE  SEPTICAEMIA. — Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletin  No.  86. 


358  Appendix 

GUINEA  FOWL  AND  ITS  USE  AS  FOOD. — United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  234. 

HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION. — Michigan  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  No.  266. 

How  TO  DRESS  POULTRY. — S.  V.  Thomas.  Published  by  A.  D. 
Hosterman  Company,  Binghamton,  N.  Y. 

How  TO  KEEP  HENS  FOR  PROFIT. — C.  S.  Valentine.  Published  by 
The  Macmillan  Company,  N.  Y. 

How  TO  MAKE  POULTRY  PAY. — F.  G.  Paynter. 

HAMBURGS  UP  TO  DATE. — Charles  Holt.  Published  by  The 
Feathered  World,  London. 

ILLUSTRATED  BOOK  OF  DOMESTIC  POULTRY. — Martin  Doyle.  Pub- 
lished, by  Porter  &  Coats,  Philadelphia. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  EGG  FARM.— United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  No.  141. 

INCUBATION  AND  BROODING. — E.  B.  Hawks,  Clinton,  Wis. 

INCUBATION  AND  ITS  NATURAL  LAWS. — C.  A.  Cyphers. 

INCUBATORS  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT. — J.  H:  Sutcliffe."  Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 

INDIAN  GAME  FOWL.— G.  T.  Whitefield.  Published  by  The  Fan- 
ciers' Gazette,  London. 

INDIAN  RUNNER  DUCK  BOOK. — C.  S.  Valentine,  Ridgewood,  N.  J. 

INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  TURKEYS. — Seventh  Annual  Report. 
Published  by  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Kingston,  R.  I. 

INHERITANCE  OF  FECUNDITY. — Maine  Argicultural  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  No.  166. 

INHERITANCE  IN  POULTRY. — C.  B.  Davenport,  Washington,  D.  C. 

LABOR-SAVING  POULTRY  APPLIANCES. — Cornell  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  No.  284. 

LAYING  HENS,  SELECTION  OF. — Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  No.  164. 

LLOYD'S  MODERN  POULTRY  BOOK. — W.  B.  Lloyd.  Published  by 
Howard  &  Wilson  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  POULTRY. — United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Farmers'  Bulletin  287. 

MARKETING    OF   EGGS. — Ohio    State   University    Bulletin    No.    8. 


Appendix  359 

MARKETING  OF  EGGS  THROUGH  THE  CREAMERY. — United  States 

Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  445. 
MAKING    POULTRY    PAY. — Powell. 
MARKETING    OF    POULTRY    PRODUCTS. — Connecticut    Agricultural 

Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  38. 
MILLER  SYSTEM  BOOK. — A.  D.  Hosterman  Company,  Binghamton, 

N.Y. 

MINORCAS. — Northrup. 

MONEY  IN  BROILERS  AND  SQUABS. — M.  K.  Boyer,  Hammonton,  N.  J. 
MOULTING   OF   FOWLS. — Cornell   University   Agricultural   Experi- 
ment Station  Bulletin  No.  258. 
NATIONAL  STANDARD  SQUAB  BOOK. — C.  E.  Rice.   American  Poultry 

Journal  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
NEW  BOOK  OF  POULTRY. — Lewis  Wright,  London. 
NEW  EGG  FARM.— H.  H.  Stoddard.    Published  by  Orange  Judd 

Company,   New  York. 
THE  ORPINGTONS. — The  Reliable  Poultry  Journal  Publishing  Co., 

Quincy,  111. 
ONE   HUNDRED    FORMULAS   AND   RECEIPTS   FOR   POULTRYMEN. — 

Miller  Purvis    Poultry  Herald  Publishing  Co.  St.  Paul,  Minn. 
PARASITES  OF  POULTRY. — Bulletin  No.  131.    Published  by  North 

Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  West  Raleigh,  N.  C. 
PERFECTED   POULTRY  OF  AMERICA. — T.   F.   McGrew   and   G.   E. 

Howard.      Howard  Publishing  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 
PLYMOUTH    ROCKS. — Reliable    Poultry    Journal    Publishing    Co., 

Quincy,  111. 
POULTRY  APPLIANCES  AND  HANDICRAFT. — Geo.  B.  Fiske.    Orange 

Judd  Company,  New  York. 
POULTRY   AS    FOOD. — United    States   Department  of  Agriculture, 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  182. 
POULTRY  AS  FOOD. — Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

Bulletin  No.  27. 
POULTRY  ARCHITECTURE. — G.  B.  Fiske.    Orange  Judd  Company, 

New  York. 
POULTRY  BOOK. — Wm.  B.  Tegetmeier.    Published  by  Routledge 

&  Sons,  London. 


360  Appendix 

THE  POULTRY  BOOK. — H.  Weir.  American  Edition.  Edited  by 
W.  G.  Johnston,  G.  O.  Brown  and  others,  3  vols. 

POULTRY  CULTURE. — Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  No.  52. 

POULTRY  CULTURE. — I.  K.  Felch.  Published  by  Donohue,  Hen- 
neberry  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

POULTRY  FEEDING  AND  FATTENING. — G.  B.  Fiske.  Orange  Judd 
Company,  New  York. 

POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION. — Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  Bulletin  No.  215. 

POULTRY-HOUSES  AND  FIXTURES. — Reliable  Poultry  Journal, 
Quincy,  111. 

POULTRY  KEEPING  FOR  PROFIT. — Bulletin  No.  130.  Published 
by  North  Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  West 
Raleigh,  N.  C. 

PRACTICAL  POULTRY  KEEPER. — L.  Wright.  Published  by  Orange 
Judd  Company,  New  York. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  BROODING. — Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  Bulletin  No.  277. 

PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY  CULTURE. — J.  H.  Robinson. 

PROFITABLE  POULTRY  KEEPING. — Stephen  Beale.  Published  by 
Routledge  &  Sons,  London. 

PROFITS  IN  POULTRY. — Orange  Judd  Company.  Published  by 
Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York. 

PROFITABLE  POULTRY  PRODUCTION. — M.  G.  Kains.  Published  by 
Orange  Judd  Company,  New  Yorl^. 

PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE. — Brigham. 

RACES  OF  DOMESTIC  POULTRY. — Brown. 

SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  POULTRY  CULTURE. — E.  A.  Hawkes,  Clinton, 
Wis. 

SEVEN  METHODS  OF  FEEDING  YOUNG  CHICKENS. — Cornell  Univer- 
sity Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  282. 

STANDARD  VARIETIES  OF  CHICKENS. — United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64. 

STUDIES  OF  POULTRY  FROM  FARM  TO  CONSUMER. — United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Circular 
No.  64. 


Appendix  361 

SUCCESSFUL  BROODER  HOUSE. — Connecticut  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  Bulletin  No.  33. 

SUCCESSFUL  POULTRY  FARM. — United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  355. 

TAPEWORMS  OF  POULTRY. — United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  No.  12. 

TRAP  NESTS. — Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 
No.  193. 

TURKEYS  AND  How  TO  GROW  THEM. — -Myrick.  Published  by 
Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York.  • 

TURKEYS,  STANDARD  VARIETIES  AND  MANAGEMENT. — United 
States  Depatment  of  Agriculture  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  200. 

TWELVE  MONTHS'  WORK  IN  THE  POULTRY- YARD. — Theo.  Whitman. 

TUBERCULOSIS. — California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 
No.  161. 

WATER-GLASS  A  PRESERVATIVE  FOR  EGGS. — Connecticut  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  67. 

WHITE  DIARRHEA  OF  YOUNG  CHICKS. — Connecticut  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  68. 

WYANDOTTES. — Reliable  Poultry  Journal  Publishing  Co.,  Quincy, 
111. 


INDEX 


African  geese,  273. 

Air-space  necessary,  102. 

Amount  of  land  necessary,  7. 

Amount  of  salt  necessary,  186. 

Andalusians,  35. 

Animal  and  vegetable  food  for  young 

chickens,  228. 
Animal  and  vegetable  food  for  young 

ducks,  267. 
Animal  meal,  183. 
Arrangement  of  houses,  88. 
Arrangement  of  nests,  127. 
Artificial  incubation,  204. 
Ash,  deficient  in  food  for  chicks,  229. 
Asiatics,  46. 

Automatic  drinking-fountains,  131. 
Aylesbury  ducks,  260. 

Bacillary  white  diarrhea  of  young 
chicks,  345;  prevention  of,  347; 
source  of  infection,  346. 

Bantams,  86. 

Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  description 
of,  63;  origin  of,  63. 

Beets  as  food,  180;  manner  of  feeding, 
180. 

Best  products  most  remunerative,  12; 
sell  quickest,  12. 

Bone  cutters,  183. 

Bones  as  food,  182. 

Bones,  fresh  cut,  182. 

Bourbon  turkeys,  289. 

Bowel  disorders   of  little   chicks,   236. 

Brahmas,  characteristics  of,  48;  laying 
qualities  of,  50;  origin  of,  47;  varie- 
ties of,  47. 

Breeding,  152. 

Breed  pure-bred  stock,  163. 


Breeds  of  ducks,  259. 

Breeds  of  geese,  270. 

Breeds  suitable  for  broiler  rearing,  254. 

Breeds  suited  to  produce  capons,  245. 

Breed  useful  fowls,  168. 

Broiler  rearing,  253. 

Broilers,  description  of,  251;  food  for, 
254;  size  of,  252. 

Brooders,  215;  classes  of,  215;  home- 
made, 221 ;  requisites  of,  217. 

Brown. Leghorns,  30. 

Buckwheat  as  a  food,  178. 

Buff  Cochins,  52. 

Buff  Leghorns,  29. 

Buff  Orpingtons,  72. 

Buff  Plymouth  Rocks,  66. 

Buildings,  foundation  of,  102;  roofs  for, 
109;  side  walls  of,  105;  size  of,  100. 

Bumble  foot,  349;  treatment  for,  349. 

Business  of  rearing  fowls,  1;  suited  to 
many  persons,  9. 

Cabbage  and  rape,  181. 

Canned  meat  foods,  183. 

Capital  required,  3. 

Capon  and  broiler  rearing,  241. 

Caponizing,  instruments  for,  243;  oper- 
ation of,  249;  results  of,  242;  when  to 
operate,  248. 

Care  of  incubators,  212. 

Care  of  little  chickens,  224,  231. 

Care  of  pigeons,  299. 

Characteristics  of  Bantams,  86;  Brah- 
mas, 48;  Cochins,  52;  Cornish  Games, 
77;  Dominiques,  73;  Dorkings,  75; 
Faverolles,  54;  Frizzles,  85;  Houdans, 
76;  Javas,  72;  Langshans,  53;  Orping- 
tons, 70;  Plymouth  Rocks,  63; 


(363) 


364 


Index 


Polish,  82;  Red  Caps,  40;  Rhode 
Island  Reds,  79;  Silkies,  84;  Sultans, 
85;  Wyandottes,  68. 

Characteristics  of  egg  breeds,  16. 

Chickens,  number  of,  in  the  United 
States,  2. 

Chick  rations,  226;  manner  of  feeding, 
227. 

Cholera,  342;  how  communicated,  342; 
symptoms  of,  342;  treatment  for,  343. 

Classes  of  chickens  described,  14-16. 

Classification  of  breeds,  13. 

Close-feathered  egg  breeds,  23. 

Clover  as  food,  179. 

Clover  hay,  181. 

Cochins,  characteristics  of,  52. 

Cold  storage  for  eggs,  329. 

Combination  form  of  roof,  112. 

Common  fowls,  improvement  of,   165. 

Community  system  of  hatching,  213. 

Construction  of  floors,  113;  nests,  129; 
perches,  123;  roofs,  110;  side  walls, 
105;  hollow,  107;  straw  ceilings,  121; 
ventilators,  118. 

Construction  of  houses,  96 ;  economy  of, 
87. 

Convenience  of  buildings,  92 ;  as  regards 
labor,  93. 

Corn  as  a  food  for  laying  hens,   175. 

Cornish  Games,  77. 

Cramming,  198;  machine  for,  199;  man- 
ner of  feeding,  199. 

Cross-breeding,  160. 

Crows,  dangers  from,  353. 

Dangers  of  in-and-in-breeding,  159;  of 

cross  breeding,  161. 
Dark  Brahmas,  49. 
Description  of  egg  breeds,  14;  of  fancy 

breeds,      16;     of     general     purpose 

breeds,  15;  of  meat  breeds,  15. 
Description  of    gape  worm,  Syngamus 

trachealis,  335. 

Description  of  lice,  331;  of  mites,  334. 
Deteriorated  eggs,  321. 
Diarrhea,     351;     symptoms    of,     351; 

treatment  for,  351. 


Diseases  and  enemies  of  poultry,  330. 
Diseases  of  brooder  chicks,  237-239. 
Disinfect  fattening  fowls,  200. 
Disinfectants  for  roup,  340. 
Disposition  of  egg  breeds,  17;  of  general - 

purpose  breeds,  59;  of  meat  breeds, 

42. 

Dominiques,  73. 
Dorkings,  74;  description  of,  75. 
Drainage,  89. 

Dressed  fowls,  how  cooled,  307. 
Dressed  fowls,  when  to  ship,  312. 
Dressing  poultry,  303. 
Drinking-fountains,   130;  essentials  of, 

133;  for  little  chicks,  234;  kinds  of, 

130-133. 

Dry-feed  hoppers,  233. 
Dry-picking  fowls,  306. 
Duck  rearing,  animal  food  essential, 

267;  feeding  troughs  for,  267;  green 

food  for,  268;  pure  water  essential, 

267;  stampeding,  269;  water-troughs, 

268. 

Duck  rearing,  use  of  disinfectants,  266. 
Ducks  and  chickens  require  little  land, 

7. 
Ducks,  breeds  of,  259;  Aylesbury,  260; 

Black  Cayuga,  263;  Call,  264;  East 

Indian,   259;   Muscovy,  263;  Pekin, 

259;  Rouen,  261. 
Ducks,  cleanliness  essential,  265. 
Ducks,    food    and    care,    264;    natural 

food,  264. 
Ducks,  general  discussion,  256;  easily 

confined,  258;  reared  for  meat,  256; 

streams  or  ponds  not  necessary,  258. 
Ducks,  number  of,  in  the  United  States, 

2. 
Dust-boxes,  133;  location  of,  134. 

Early  maturity  of  egg  breeds,  19. 
Egg     breeds,    characteristics     of,     lli 

disposition  of,  17. 
Egg  breeds  classified,  13;  are  small  or 

medium  sized,  14. 
Egg  breeds,   called   "non- sitters,"    22; 

close-feathered,  23;  easily  frightened, 


Index 


365 


18;  easily  frozen,  23;  fly  readily,  18; 
generally  hardy,  20;  good  foragers, 
22;  mature  early,  19;  nervous  dis- 
position, 19;  poor  sitters,  20;  pro- 
lificacy of,  21. 

Egg  breeds  described,  14. 

Egg  breeds,  varieties  of,  24. 

Egg-eating,  128,  349. 

Egg  production  and  meat  production, 
45. 

Eggs  deteriorated,  321;  shrunken,  321; 
spoiled,  321. 

Eggs,  feeding  for,  171;  selection  for 
fertility,  150;  selection  of,  145. 

Eggs,  forced  feeding  for,  174. 

Eggs,     how     prepared     for     market, 
319. 

Eggs,  preserving  in  cold  storage,  329. 

Eggs,  preserving  in  lime  water,  329; 
preserving  in  water-glass,  326. 

Eggs,  shipping  cases  for,  322. 

Embden  geese,  272. 

Enemies    and    diseases    of    poultry, 
330. 

English  method  of  killing,  313. 

English  methods  of  dressing,  312. 

Essentials  of  a  brooder,  217. 

Evaporated  milk  by-products  as  food, 
184. 

Exercise  and  egg  production,  172. 

Exercise  for  little  chicks,  230. 

Exercise  not  necessary  for  fattening, 
172. 

Failures  due  to  inexperience,  5. 

Fancy  breeds,  81. 

Fancy  breeds  described,  16. 

Faverolles,  54;  description  of,  54. 

Feather-eating,  350. 

Feeding  and  exercise,  191. 

Feeding  for  eggs,  171. 

Feeding  for  meat  or  fattening,  196; 
animal  meal,  196;  coops,  197;  exer- 
cise, 197;  grain  food,  196. 

Feeding  in  litter,  191. 

Feeding  little  chickens,  224;  food  for, 
225. 


Feed-troughs,  191;  for  little  chicks,  232. 

Fencing  yards,  138. 

Fertility  of  eggs,  151. 

Flavor  of  eggs  affected  by  food,   173. 

Floors,  113;  kinds  of,  113. 

Floor  space  necessary,  100. 

Flying-lofts  for  pigeons,  300. 

Food  for  broilers,  254. 

Food  for  goslings,  276. 

Food,  ground,  189. 

Food,    manner    of    feeding,    187;    for 

fattening  fowls,  200. 
Food,  quality  of,  172. 
Foraging  of  egg  breeds,  22. 
Forced  feeding  for  eggs,  174. 
Formation  of  breeds  through  crossing, 

162. 

Forming  machine,  314;  how  used,  315. 
Form  of  house,  97. 
Foundation  of  buildings,  102. 
Fowls,  Guinea,  294. 
Freezing,  348;  treatment  for,  348. 
Fresh  bones,  182. 

Fresh  eggs,  320;  how  marketed,  320. 
Frizzles,  description  of,  85. 
Frozen  poultry,  311. 
Fruit  trees  for  yards  and  parks,  140. 

Gable  roof,  110. 

Game  fowls,  84;  varieties  of,  84. 

Games,  Cornish,  77. 

Gapes,  335;  description  of,  335;  reme- 
dies for,  336. 

Geese,  general  discussion,  269;  African, 
273;  Canadian,  or  Wild,  275;  Chinese, 
274;  Embden,  272;  Toulouse,  271. 

Geese,  houses  for,  278. 

General-purpose  breeds  described,   15. 

General-purpose  fowls,  57;  disposition 
of,  59;  early  maturing,  60;  good 
foragers,  60;  good  sitters,  60;  size  of, 
59;  useful  qualities  of,  58. 

Good-sized  eggs  sell  best,  30. 

Goslings,  food  for,  276;  natural  food  of, 
276. 

Grading  fowls  for  shipment,  318. 

"Grading  up,"  167. 


366 


Index 


Grain  foods,  buckwheat,  178;  corn,  175; 

linseed  meal,  178;  oats,  178;  wheat, 

177. 
Grain    rations    for    laying    hens,    193; 

summer,  193;  winter,  193. 
Green  foods,  necessity  of,   178;  beets, 

180;  cabbage,  181;  clover,  179;  rape, 

181. 

Grit,  necessary,  184. 
Ground  food,  189. 
Guinea  fowls,  294;  esteemed  for  food, 

295;   great   rovers,   296;   number   of 

females  to  one  male,  296. 

Hamburgs,  37;  characteristics  of,  38; 
unprofitable  table  fowls,  39;  varie- 
ties of,  38.  ? 

Handling  eggs  through  the  creamery, 
322. 

Hawks,  dangers  from,  353. 

Health  of  fowls,  89. 

Heredity,  152.  . 

History  of  Leghorns,  25;  of  Minorcas, 
33;  Andalusians,  33. 

Hollow-side  walls,  107. 

Home-made  brooders,  221. 

Homers,  301. 

Houdans,  description  of,  76. 

Houses,  construction  of,  96;  size  of,  100; 
movable,  142. 

Houses  for  geese,  278. 

Houses  for  pigeons,  300. 

How  to  feed,  187;  little  chickens,  225. 

Importance  of  exercise,  172. 

Importance  of  the  poultry  industry,  1. 

Improper  brooder  conditions,  237. 

Improvement   of   common  fowls,    165. 

Improvement  of  Leghorns,  26. 

Improvement  through  variation,  155; 
through  in-and-in-breeding,  158. 

In-and-in-breeding,  157. 

Incubating  eggs,  temperature  of,  206. 

Incubator  buildings,  210,  211,  214. 

Incubator  rooms,  211. 

Incubators,  203;  care  of,  212;  opera- 
tion of,  213. 


Inexperience,  cause  of  failures,  5. 
Influence  of  food  on  color  of  yolk,  176. 
Investments  yield  quick  returns,  8. 
Irish  shipping  case,  323. 

Javas,  72. 

Killing  fowls  for  market,  305. 
Kinds  of  litter,  194. 

Lamp  brooders,  objections  to,  223. 
Land,  amount  required,  7. 
Langshans,  characteristics  of,  53. 
Large  combs  and  wattles  sensitive  to 

cold,  23. 
Late-maturing  qualities  of  meat  breeds, 

46. 

Law  of  heredity,  152. 
Law  of  variation,  154. 
Laying  qualities  of  Brahmas,  50. 
Laying  qualities  of  .geese,  278. 
Leghorns,  history  of,  2.5;  improvement 

of,  26;  hardy,  28;  light  eaters,  28; 

produce  white  eggs,  30;  size  of,  27; 

varieties  of,  28. 
Lice,  330;  description  of,  331;  manner  of 

propagating,  331;  remedies  for,  332. 
Lime,  necessary,  185. 
Lime   water    as    an    egg   preservative, 

329. 

Lime  water,  how  made,  329. 
Linseed  meal,  for  molting  hens,  178. 
Litter,  194. 

Live  poultry,  how  shipped,  317. 
Locating  a  poultry-farm,  88. 
Location  of  windows,  115. 

Machine,  forming,  314. 

Maels  and  egg  production,  151. 

Manner  of  beginning,  6, 

Market  price  of  squabs,  300. 

Marketing  poultry  products,  302. 

Marking  packages,  311. 

Material  for  nests,  130. 

Maturing  qualities  of  general  purpose 

breeds,  60. 
Meat  breeds  described,  15. 


Index 


367 


Meat  breeds,  disposition  of,  42;  easily 
confined,  43;  large  fowls,  41;  late 
maturing,  46;  laying  qualities  of,  44; 
poor  foragers,  43;  quality  of  flesh,  41; 
varieties  of,  46. 

Meat  foods,  182;  for  little  chicks,  228. 

Meat  production  compared  to  egg  pro- 
duction, 45. 

Methods  of  cooking  dressed  fowls,  307. 

Mexican  turkey,  285. 

Minorcas,  description  of,  34 ;  history  of, 
33;  varieties  of,  33. 

Mites,  334;  habits  of,  334;  remedies  for, 
334. 

Money  invested  yields  quick  returns,  8. 

Movable  houses,  142. 

Muscovy  ducks,  263. 

Muslin  windows,  119. 

Narragansett  turkeys,  287. 

Natural  and  artificial  incubation  com- 
pared, 203. 

Natural  food,  of  ducks,  264;  of  geese, 
276. 

Natural  food  of  goslings,  276. 

Necessary  air-space  per  fowl,  102. 

Nests,  126;  arrangement  of,  127;  mater- 
ial for,  130;  size  of,  129. 

Number  of  chickens  in  the  United 
States,  2;  ducks  in  the  United  States, 
2;  geese  in  the  United  States,  2; 
turkeys  in  the  United  States,  2. 

Number  of  females  to  one  male,  turkeys, 
291;  guineas,  296. 

Oats  as  a  food,  178. 

Open-front  houses,  121. 

Operating  incubators,  213. 

Operation  for  caponizing,  249. 

Origin  of  Brahmas,  47;  Cochins,  51; 
Faverolle,  54;  Javas,  72;  Leghorns, 
25;  Minorcas,  33;  Orpingtons,  70; 
Plymouth  Rocks,  63;  White-faced 
Black  Spanish,  36;  Wyandottes,  68. 
Orpingtons,  general  description  of,  71; 
origin  of,  70;  size  of,  72;  varieties  of ,72. 

Outdoor  brooders,  217. 


Overfeeding,  188. 
Oyster  shells,  185. 

Pate  de  foie  gras,  277. 

Pea  comb,  48. 

Pea  fowls,  297;  habits  of,  297;  objec- 
tions to,  297. 

Packages,  how  marked,  311. 

Packing  dressed  fowls  for  shipment,  309. 

Packing  fowls  in  ice,  310;  detailed 
description  of,  310. 

Parks  and  yards,  135. 

Pekin  ducks,  259. 

Pepper,  187. 

Perches,  construction  of,  123;  location 
of,  124. 

Pigeons,  general  discussion,  298;  houses 
for,  300. 

Placing  an  incubator,  209;  even  tem- 
perature desired,  209. 

Plum  trees  for  the  poultry-yard,  140. 

Plumping,  308. 

Plymouth  Rocks,  62;  varieties  of,  63; 
weight  of,  63. 

Poisoning  from  salt,  186;  remedies  for, 
351. 

Poisoning  rats,  352. 

Polish,  82;  varieties  of,  83. 

Portable  poultry-houses,  141. 

Poultry,  dressing  for  market,  302. 

Poultry  rearing  compared,  4 ;  a  business 
of  details,  5. 

Poultry,  frozen,  311. 

Poultry  statistics  unreliable,  2. 

Precautions  against  vermin,  95. 

Preparation  for  caponizing,  246. 

Preparing  capons  for  market,  250. 

Preparing  eggs  for  market,  319. 

Preparing  poultry  for  market,  302. 

Preserving  eggs,  324;  various  methods, 
of,  325. 

Preventive  measures  for  gapes,  337. 

Produce  good-sized  eggs,  31. 

Products  easy  to  market,  11. 

Profit  from  feeding,  188. 

Profits  of  capon  rearing,  240. 

Pure-bred  vs.  common  stock,  165. 


368 


Index 


Quality  of  flesh  of  meat  breeds,  41. 

Quality  of  food,  172. 

Quick  returns  from  money  invested,  8. 

Raising  poultry  as  a  business,  1. 

Rape  as  food.  181. 

Rations  for  little  chicks,   226;  animal 

food,  228;  hard-boiled  eggs,  229;  skim 

milk  for,  228. 

Rats,  352;  extermination  of,  352. 
Rearing  capons,  240. 
Rearing  squabs,  300. 
Red  Caps,  40;  characteristics  of,  40. 
Remedies  for  diarrhea,  347. 
Remedies  for  gapes,  336. 
Remedies  for  lice,  332;  for  mites,  334. 
Rhode  Island  Reds,  79. 
Roofing  materials,  113. 
Roofs   for  poultry-houses,  construction 

of,  110;  essentials  of,   113;  form  of, 

109;  materials  for,  113. 
Rooms  for  incubators,  211. 
Root  cutters,  180. 
Rouen  ducks,  261. 
Roup,  338;  general  discussion  of,  338; 

symptoms  of,  338 ;  treatment  for,  339. 
Rules  for  selecting  eggs,  328. 
Rules  for  selecting  turkeys  for  breeding, 

290. 

Runs,  suitable  for  geese,  270. 
Runts,  301. 

Salt,  beneficial,  186;  poisonous  in  large 
quantities,  351. 

Salt,  necessary,  186;  amount  required, 
186. 

Scalding,  307;  precautions  of,  309. 

Scaly  legs,  347;  treatment  for,  348. 

Selecting  eggs,  328. 

Selecting  eggs  for  hatching,  145. 

Selection  for  vigor,  147;  for  egg  produc- 
tion, 148;  for  utility,  170. 

Selection  of  a  breed,  143. 

Selection  of  an  incubator,  207. 

Selection  of  breeding  stock,  turkeys, 
290. 

Shed-roof,  111. 


Shipping-cases  for  eggs,  322. 

Shipping-crates,  317. 

Shipping  live  poultry,  317. 

Shrunken  eggs,  321. 

Shutters  for  windows,  115. 

Side  walls,  construction  of,  105. 

Silkies,  description  of,  84. 

Size  of  egg  breeds,  14 ;  fancy  breeds,  59 ; 

general  purpose,  59;  meat  breeds,  41. 
Size  of  fowls  to  caponize,  246. 
Skim  milk,  183;  for  little  chicks,  228. 
Slate  turkeys,  288. 
Slight  elevation  preferred,  90. 
Soft  foods  most  profitable,  189. 
Solid  colors  preferred,  33. 
Solid  side  walls,  construction  of,   105. 
South  side  of  house  desirable  for  yards, 

92. 

Spanish  fowls,  36. 
Species  of  native  turkeys,  285. 
Spraying  for  lice,  333. 
Spoiled  eggs,  321. 
Squabs,    300;    market    prices   of,    300; 

varieties  of,  301. 
Squabs,  food  for,  301. 
Statistics,  unreliable,  2. 
Straw  as  litter,  194;  buckwheat  hulls, 
.      194. 
Sulphur,  187. 

Sultans,  description  of,  85. 
Sunshine  desirable,  90. 
Superior  products  create  new  demands, 

12. 
Symptoms    of  cholera,    342;    of    roup, 

338. 
Syngamus  trachealis,  335. 

Temperature  of  incubating  eggs,   206. 

Theory  of  incubation,  205. 

Time  of  feeding,  190. 

Time  of  year  to  begin,  6. 

Time   to   caponize,   246,   248;   to   seU 

broilers,  252. 
Toulouse  geese,  271. 
Transmission  of  characters,  153. 
Treatment  for  bumble  foot,  349'. 
Treatment  for  cholera,  343. 


Index 


369 


Treatment,  for  freezing,  348;  for  scaly 

legs,  348. 

Treatment  for  roup,  339. 
Troughs,  water,  for  ducks,  268. 
Turkeys,  care  and  food  for  the  young, 

292;  first  food  for,  293;  grain  foods 

for,  294. 

Turkeys,  general  discussion,  280. 
Turkeys,   selection   of  breeding  stock, 

290. 
Turkeys,  varieties  of,  285;  Black,  288; 

Bourbon,    289;    Bronze,    286;    Buff, 

288;,  Narragansett,  287;  Slate,  288; 

White  Holland,  287. 

United  States  Census  Report,  2. 
Useful  qualities  of  fowls,  44. 

Variation,  154;  law  of,  154;  male  leads 
in,  156. 

Varieties  of  Bantams,  86. 

Varieties  of  egg  breeds,  24. 

Varieties  of  meat  breeds,  46. 

Varieties  of  pigeons  for  squab  rearing, 
301. 

Varieties  of  Polish,  83. 

Vegetable  and  animal  nitrogen  com- 
pared, 182. 

Ventilation,  117;  by  means  of  straw 
ceilings,  120;  open-front  houses,  121. 


Ventilators,  construction  of,  118. 
Vermin,  precautions  against,  95. 
Vigorous  fowls  most  profitable,  188. 

Water-glass    as    an    egg    preservative, 

326;  how  made,  327. 
Wheat  as  a  food  for  laying  hens,  177. 
When  to  ship  poultry,  312. 
White  diarrhea,  345. 
White-faced  Black  Spanish,  36. 
White  Leghorns,  30. 
White  or  Brown  Leghorns  preferred,  32. 
White  Orpingtons,  72. 
White  Plymouth  Rocks,  65. 
Wild  and  domesticated  turkeys  com-, 
.  pared,  281. 
Wild  turkey  crosses,  282. 
Wild  turkeys,  where  found,  280. 
Windows,    number   and   size   of,    115; 

location  of.    115;  shutters  for,    115. 
Wyandottes,  description  of,  69;  noted 

for  utility,  70;  origin  of,  68;  size  of, 

68;  varieties  of,  70. 

Yards  and  parks,   135;  cultivation  of, 

138;  fruit  trees  for,  140. 
Yolk,  color  of,  affected  by  food,   176. 
Young  ducks,  food  for,  267. 
Young  fowls  require  more  exercise,  8: 

more  land  required,  11. 


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on  field  practice.  He  •  is  a  successful  commercial 
grower,  and  has  given  much  attention  to  the  different 
systems  of  potato  growing  throughout  the  United 
States.  

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Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 


RURAL  SCIENCE  SERIES  — Continued 

A  Manual  of  Fruit  Diseases 

BY  LEX  R.    HESLER 

Assistant  Professor  of  Plant  Pathology  in  the  New  York  State  College  of 
Agriculture  at  Cornell  University,  and 

HERBERT  H.  WHETZEL 

Professor  of  Plant  Pathology  in  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture 
at  Cornell  University 

With  illustrations;  cloth,  i2tno,  $2.00 

This  manual  contains  a  presentation  of  the  known 
facts  and  data  with  respect  to  the  common  diseases  of 
fruits.  It  has  been  prepared  primarily  for  the  modern 
agriculturist,  the  farmer,  the  thinking  fruit  grower,  but 
it  should  also  be  of  service  to  anyone  who  has  an  inter- 
est in  plant  diseases.  The  fruits  are  taken  up  in  alpha- 
betical order.  The  discussion  of  the  diseases  proceeds 
in  order  of  their  importance  and  prominence  in  the 
United  States.  Particular  attention  is  paid  to  the  de- 
scription and  illustration  of  the  symptoms,  to  the  cause 
and  to  the  generally  accepted  measures  of  control. 
Technical  details  are  omitted  as  far  as  possible  though 
the  effort  has  been  made  to  present  the  matter  in  as 
popular  a  fashion  as  possible. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 


RURAL  SCIENCE  SERIES  — Continued 

Strawberry  Growing 

BY  S.   W.   FLETCHER 
Professor  of  Horticulture  at  the  Pennsylvania  State  College 

24  full-page  plates  and  22  figures  in  the  text,  $1.75 

The  strawberry  occupies  a  position  among  North  American 
fruits  second  only  to  the  apple  in  commercial  importance.  Pro- 
fessor Fletcher  here  gives  a  clear  outline  of  present  commercial 
practice,  taking  up  all  the  important  points  in  considerable  detail 
—  location  of  beds,  most  desirable  soils,  planting,  rotation  of 
crops,  treatment  with  fertilizers,  tillage  and  irrigation,  the  train- 
ing of  the  plant,  mulching,  pollination,  picking,  packing,  market- 
ing, varieties  of  berries,  insects,  diseases,  and  statistics  on  acreage, 
production,  and  value. 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 

I.  Locations,  sites,  and  soils. 

II.  Planting. 

III.  Rotations,  manuring,  and  fertilizing. 

IV.  Tillage  and  irrigation. 
V.  Training  the  plant. 

VI.  Mulching. 

VII.  Pollination. 

VIII.  Packages. 

IX.  Picking  and  packing. 

X.  Marketing. 

XI.  Cost  of  production,  yields,  profits. 

XII.  Propagation  and  renewal. 

XIII.  Everbearing  varieties,  forcing  and  other  special  methods  of 

culture. 

XIV.  Insects,  diseases,  and  frost. 
XV.   Varieties. 

APPENDIX.     Statistics  on  Acreage,  Production,  and  Value. 


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Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
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MAR    16    1919 
APR    30 


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